Elam (kingdom)

Elam (Old Elamite: olakkmi; Akkadian: Elamtu; Old Persian: Hujiyā; Persian modern تمدن عیلام ―"Elam culture"―) was a historical territory located east of Sumer and Akkad, in present-day southwestern Iran. The Elamites called their country Haltamti (in Late Elamite, Atamti), from which their Akkadian neighbors adapted the name Elamtu. Upper Elam was subsequently increasingly identified by its lower capital, Susa, and was called Susiana by post-Ptolemy geographers. The Old Persian term Hujiyā survives in the place name Khuzestan, which is the province along with Lorestan in which the remains of ancient Elam are located. At different periods there were different Elamite empires and at other times they were subject to neighboring empires.

Excavations carried out in Susa have provided numerous documents in cuneiform characters that allow us to reconstruct the most ancient history and religion of the Elamites. The Elamite language ―as established from cuneiform records― is not related to any of the four neighboring language groups: Hamito-Semitic, Sumerian, and Indo-European (specifically, the Early Iranian group). Some scholars have found that the language of the Elamites appears to be related to the present-day Dravidian languages of South India (see Elamo-Dravidan languages). However, the relationship of the Elamites to other known nations is still obscure.

History

Tabilla with numerical symbols of the Uruk period (between 3200 BC and 2700 BC). Found in Susa.

She's an elamite, Susa.

Elamite history has conventionally been divided into three periods: Proto-Elamite, Old Elamite, and Neo-Elamite; however it must be considered that remains and artifacts from the early stages continue to be discovered in central and southeastern Iran.

Proto-Elamite Period

The city of Susa, founded around 4000 B.C. C. in the Karun river basin, is considered the site of the appearance of the proto-Elamite culture. During its early history it fluctuated between submission to the Mesopotamian states and Elamite power. In the first levels (22-17 in the excavations carried out by Le Brun in 1978) the ceramics have no equivalent in Mesopotamia, but in the following period the excavated material allows identification with the Sumerian culture of the Uruk period. The influence of Mesopotamia in Susa becomes visible from around 3200 BC. C. Texts in the proto-Elamite writing system, not yet deciphered, are present until around 2700 BC. C. The proto-Elamite period ends with the establishment of the Awan dynasty. The oldest known historical figure associated with Elam is King Mebaragesi, of Kish (2650 BC), who subdued it, according to the Sumerian king list. Elamite history can only be traced from records dating to the early Akkadian Empire, around 2300 BCE. C. onwards.

Archaeologists have suggested that there was a close relationship between the Elamite civilization and the Jiroft civilization, evidenced by striking similarities in art and culture as well as Elamite-language writings found at Jiroft.

Ancient Elamite Period

Extension of Elam (to the right, in brown) in times of the Sargon of Acad

Start with the earliest attested Elamite kings, approximately 2700 BCE. Designated by Sumerian scribes simply as NIM ("Mountainlands"), Elam had not previously been ethnically or culturally unified. Elam fell under the political control of Acad in the 22nd century BCE. C. by action of Sargón de Acad, who maintained the local institutions. The Awan dynasty reasserted the independence of Elam. Shulgi of Ur (2094-2047 BC) conquered Elam for a time. In the middle of the XIX century B.C. C., power in Elam passed to the Eparti dynasty. Hammurabi of Babylon attacked Elam in the 18th century BC. King Kutir-Nahhunte I of Elam counterattacked and caused serious damage, of which little is known, around 1160 BC. C., and under the command of Shutruk-Nahhunte, Elam defeats the Cassites and establishes the first, short-lived Elamite Empire. King Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon conquered Elam around 1120 B.C. C. bringing the empire to an end.

Neo-Elamite Period

Around 750 B.C. C., Elam reasserted its independence, causing the cultural renaissance of the Neo-Elamite period. Elam, which had allied with the Chaldeans to try to re-establish Babylonian independence, was occupied by the Assyrians around 645 BC. C., which meant the end of Elam as an independent state. The Medes conquered Elam from the Assyrians, and the Achaemenid dynasty, another Iranian dynasty that ruled the former Elamite land of Anshan, took Susa and conquered the Median Empire to establish the first Persian Empire.

Traditional history concludes the Elamite civilization with the rise of the Achaemenids, but Greek and Latin references still mention an autonomous region within the Parthian Empire called Elymaida, which attests to cultural survival, according to Daniel Potts (see refs.). Additionally, the Arab traveler of the X century Istakhrī commented that the people of Khuzestan spoke three languages, Arabic, Persian and something that they they called Khuzī". It is not clear if this language was descended from Elamite or simply a local dialect of Persian. The Elamite language has not yet been able to be related to any other known language.

The Elamite language was one of the official languages of the Persian Empire in ancient times, and Susa was one of the four capitals of the empire. Susa was also the capital of the Sasanian dynasty from 224 BC. C. and until 651 d. The last use of the Elamite script is dated to the IV century AD. C., and Elam is still known as the present-day province of Khuzestan, where Iran's vast oil industry is based.

Chronology of rulers

Awan Dynasty (precise dates unknown)

• Peli (2500 BC).
• Tata (exact date unknown).
• Ukku-Takhesh (nearly unknown date).
• Khishur (exactly unknown).
• Shushun-Tarana (nearly unknown date).
• Napil-Khush (now unknown).
• Kikku-Sive-Temti (nearly unknown date).
• Lukh-IshshanXXIVa. C.).
• Khelu (2300 BC).
• Khita (2275 BC).
• Kutik-Inshushinnak (2240 BC).

Simash Dynasty (precise dates unknown)

• Gir-Namme (2030 BC).
• Enpi-Luhhan (2010 a. C.).
• Khutran-Temtt (exact date unknown).
• Kindattu (exact date unknown).
• Indattu-Inshushinnak I (exactly unknown).
• Tan-Rukhurater (nearly unknown date).
• Indattu-Inshushinnak II (nearly unknown date).
• Indattu-Napir (expected date unknown).
• Indattu-Tempt (exact date unknown).

Eparti Dynasty (precise dates unknown)

• Eparti I (exact date unknown).
• Eparti II (exact date unknown).
• Eparti III (1850 BC).
• Shilkhakha (exactly unknown).
• Attakhushu (1830 BC).
• Sirukdukh (1792 BC).
• Shimut-Wartash (1772-1770 BC).

Babylonian Dynasty (1770-1500 B.C.)

Near East around 1700 B.C., in times of Babylonian dynasty.

• Siwe-Palar-Khuppak (1770-1745 BC).
• Kuduzulush I (1745-1730 BC).
• Kutir-Nahhunte I (1730-1700 BC).
• Lila-Ir-Tash (1700-1698 BC).
• Temti-Agun I (1698-1690 a. C.).
• Tan-Uli (1690-1655 BC).
• Temti-Khalki (1655-1650 BC).
• Kuk-Nashur II (1650-1635 BC).
• Kutir-Shilkhakha I (1635-1625 BC).
• Temti-Raptash (1625-1605 BC).
• Kuduzulush II (1605-1600 BC).
• Tata (1600-1580 BC).
• Atta-Merra-Khalki (1580-1570 BC).
• Pala-Ishshan (1570-1545 BC).
• Kuk-Kirwash (1545-1520 BC).
• Kuk-Nahhunte (1520-1505 BC).
• Kutir-Nahhunte II (1505-??? a. C.).

Igehalkid Dynasty (1350-1200 BCE)

• Ige-Halki (1350-1330 BC).
• Pakhir-Ishshan (1330-1310 BC).
• Attar-Kittakh (1310-1300 BC).
• Humban-Numena (1300-1275 BC).
• Untash-Naprisha (1275-1240 BC).
• Unpatar-Naprisha (1240-1235 BC).
• Kidin-Hutran (1235-1210 BC).

Shutrukida Dynasty (1205-1100 BC)

Near East around 1200 B.C., at the time of the Shutrukida dynasty.

• Khallutush-In-Shushinak (1205-1185 BC).
• Shutruk-Nahhunte (1185-1155 BC).
• Kutir-Nahhunte III (1155-1150 BC).
• Silhak-Inshushinak (1150-1120 BC).
• Khutelutush-In-Shushinak (1120-1110 BC).
• Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar (1110-???? a. C.).

Last Elamite Dynasty (743-644 BC)

• Khumbanigash I (743-717 BC).
• Shuturnakhkhunte II (717-699 BC).
• Khallushu (699-693 BC).
• Kutir-Nakhkhunte (693-692 BC).
• Khumma-Menanu (692-689 BC).
• Humban-Haltash I (689-681 B.C.).
• Humban-Haltash II (681-680 BC).
• Humban-Haltash II and Shilhak-In-Shushinak (680-676 BC).
• Shilhak-In-Shushinak and Urtaki (676-664 BC).
• Shilhak-In-Shushinak and Temti-Humban-Inshushinak (664-653 BC).
• Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak and Khumbanigash II (653-651 BC).
• Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak and Tammaritu (651-649 BC).
• Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak and Indabigash (649-648 BC).
• Indabigash (648-647 BC).
• Khumma-Khaldash III (647-644 BC).

Mentions in the Bible

The Bible mentions ―in Genesis 5:32,10:22― that Elam was one of the sons of Shem (son of Noah). These verses take the reader to the home or motherland of the Semites, Mesopotamia and eastern Arabia. Elam was the border region with the lower Tigris in the west and with Media in the northeast. Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (cf. Daniel 8:9), became in later times one of the capitals of the Persian Empire (see e.g. Esther 1:2). In addition, Elam has its own prophecy ―in Jeremiah 49 , from verse 34 onwards― where Jehovah sends evil upon this people, swearing that he will gather them again at the end of time.