Dry cereal
The rye (Secale cereale (L.) M.Bieb.) is an annual monocotyledonous plant It belongs to the grass family and is cultivated for its grain or as a forage plant. It is a member of the wheat family and is closely related to barley.
Rye grain is used to make flour, in the food industry and for the manufacture of beer, brandy, high-quality vodka and some whiskeys. It is highly tolerant of soil acidity. The first possible use of domestic rye dates back to the late Paleolithic, on Abū Hurayra (a hill currently flooded by a dam), in the Euphrates river valley (northern Syria).
Description
Secale cereale, the rye, is an annual plant 110-160 cm tall, flowering from May to July, forming a spike-shaped inflorescence about 20-30 cm long (more longer than that of wheat), leaves 5-10 mm wide. Glumes of spikes 6-15 mm without counting the awns; lemna (lower glume) 7-15 mm, with awn usually 2-5.5 cm. The grain, like all grasses, is called a caryopsis. Iran is considered to be the country of origin for this species.
Common names
- In Spanish it is known with the following names: alcalcel, añai, añegu, arkcel, arcalcel, bálago, rye, rye albar, common rye, winter rye, spring rye, tahal rye, granal rye, late rye, early rye, rye, rye, herrén.
- in Catalan, sègol
- in Galician, centimeter
- in asturianu, centen or centenu
- in Aragonese, segal
- in euskera, zekale, añegu or aiñari
Taxonomy
Secale cereale was described by (L.) M.Bieb. and published in Species Plantarum 1: 84. 1753.
- Etymology
Secale: Generic name having the classical Latin name for rye or spelt.
Cereale: Latin epithet meaning "cereal".
- Sinonimia
- Secale turkestanicum Bensin
- Triticum cereale (L.) Salisb.
- Triticum secale Link
- Secale aestivum Uspenski
- Secale ancestrale (Zhuk.) Zhuk.
- Secale arundinaceum Trautv.
- Secale compositum Poir.
- Secale creticum Sieber ex Kunth
- Secale hybernum Poir.
- Secale spontaneum Fisch. ex Steud.
- Secale strictum C.Presl
- Secale triflorum P.Beauv.
- Secale vernum Poir.
- Triticum ramosum Weigel
- Triticum strictum C. Presl
Brief history
Rye is one of the cereal species that grew wild in what is now central and eastern Turkey and adjacent areas.
Cultivated rye has been found in small quantities at a number of Neolithic sites in Turkey, such as the pre-ceramic Neolithic site B of Can Hassan III, but elsewhere rye is virtually absent from archaeological records, up to the age from Central Europe, around 1800–1500 BC. Rye may have traveled west from Turkey, as a minor mix, with wheat, not being cultivated until later as a home crop. Although archaeological evidence for this grain has been found in Roman contexts along the Rhine, the Danube, and in the British Isles, Pliny the Elder was disdainful of rye, writing of this grain that "... it is a very poor food and only serves to stave off hunger”, and wheat is mixed into it “...to assuage its bitter taste, and yet it is very unpleasant to the stomach »
Since the Middle Ages, rye has been widely cultivated in Europe and is the main grain used to produce bread in areas east of France, Germany and the northern border of Hungary.
Evidence of much earlier cultivation of rye, in the Epipaleolithic at the Tilo Abu Hureyra deposit in the northern Euphrates valley (in Syria), remains controversial. Critics point out that there is inconsistency in the radiocarbon dates, and the identification is based solely on the grain (which can travel), rather than the chaff (which travels less).
Cultivation
Rye grows well in much poorer soil than is needed for most other grains. For this reason, it is an especially valuable crop in regions where the soil has sand or peat. Rye plants withstand the cold better than other small grains. Rye survives with a snow cover that would cause the winter death of winter wheat. Most farmers grow winter rye, which is planted and begins to grow in the fall. In spring, the plants develop and produce their harvest.
Rye planted in the fall shows rapid growth. Around the summer solstice, the plants reach their maximum height of about 120 cm, while wheat planted in spring has just germinated. Its vigorous growth eliminates even competitors such as weeds, and rye can be grown without applying herbicides.[citation needed]
Rye is a common and unwanted invader of winter wheat fields. If allowed to grow and mature, it can cause a substantial reduction in the price of wheat harvested with rye impurities.
Frost resistance
Secale cereale can thrive in sub-zero environments. The leaves of S. cereale produce several antifreeze polypeptides (different from the antifreeze polypeptides produced by some fish and insects).
Varieties
Varieties registered in Spain and in the European Union can be consulted in the common catalog of agricultural species of the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture.
Diseases
Rye can be affected by various diseases of bacterial, fungal, nematode or viral origin.
However, the disease with the longest history is ergot.
Rye is highly susceptible to ergot. Consumption of ergot-infected rye by humans and animals results in a serious medical condition known as ergotism. Ergotism can cause physical and mental damage, including seizures, miscarriage, necrosis of the fingers, hallucinations, and death. Historically, the humid Nordic countries that have relied on rye as a staple crop were subject to periodic epidemics of this disease. Such epidemics have been found to correlate with periods of frequent witch trials, such as the Salem witch trials in Massachusetts in 1692. Modern methods of cleaning and milling grain have virtually eliminated the disease, but contaminated flour may end up in bread and other food products if ergot is not removed before grinding.
Rye can be affected by the ergot Claviceps purpurea, whose accidental consumption together with the cereal was the cause of ergotism.
Ergot in ancient Greece: the Eleusinian mysteries
The Eleusinian Mysteries were mystery rites and one of the mainstays of the value system and initiation cults of ancient Greece. There are some Hellenic writings in which the transcendent effect of what happened during the Eleusinian rite is described, but it was always written about the effect, without mention of what happened during the rite in action or about the kykeon, a mixture that seems to have been ingested. After consuming the sacred entheogen and spending the night in the telestery, the Hellenic initiates had a vision of the sacred, the nature of which was strictly forbidden to divulge, and they became epoptes, the one who has had the transformative vision. It is known that the Athenian general Alcibiades, the vain nephew of Pericles, was sentenced to death for desecrating the visionary mysteries when he prepared and took the kykeon in Athens, outside the temple. On the other hand, there are indications that the condemnation of Socrates also had something to do with this very desecration.
The great Hellenic secret, according to the investigations of R. Gordon Wasson, with the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann (discoverer of lysergic acid) and other researchers, is that, in all probability, a substance was ritually consumed inside the telesterion visonaria made from a fungal specimen: ergot. It has potent hallucinogenic properties, but ergotamine causes gangrene and death when consumed in large amounts on a regular basis. Hence, the secret kept by the temple priests at Eleusis probably had a material part: preparing the kykeon so that it would not be toxic.
Uses
One of the main uses of this cereal is in the kitchen. Its flour has a low gluten content, compared to wheat, and contains a higher proportion of soluble fibers. Rye breads are made with it, including pumpernickel and knäckebröd, widely consumed in northern and eastern Europe. It is also used in the traditional Hardtack biscuit.
It is also a main ingredient in rye whiskey and rye beer. As alternative medicine the "rye extract" —a liquid obtained from rye and similar to that extracted from wheatgrass. Also as a light laxative.
Its supposed benefits include improving the immune system, increasing energy levels and improving the situation against allergies, although there is no clinical evidence of its efficacy.[citation required ] It is also said that it could be active in the prevention of prostate cancer. However, it contains gluten and, therefore, its consumption is not recommended by people who must follow a diet gluten free diet.
In cosmetics, rye flour (very finely ground) is used to make a paste with water of a consistency similar to shampoo, to clean the hair. Its low gluten content prevents lumps from forming, its pH is very similar to that of the scalp, and it contains pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), widely used in conventional shampoos.[citation needed]
Handicrafts are made with its straw, including toy dolls.
Rye can also be used in animal feed like most cereals, both in grain and as fodder.
Use of ergot in obstetrics
John Stearns (1822) first drew attention to the use of ergot to treat primary postpartum hemorrhage. Earlier, regarding ergot, he wrote: It speeds up prolonged labor... The pain of prolonged labor is particularly exhausting... In most cases you will be surprised at the rapidity of its effect (Stearns, 1808). Moir, in 1932, observed that the oral administration of aqueous banyut rye extract is associated with very pronounced and vigorous uterine contractions, known as the John Stearns effect. In 1935, Dudley and Moir managed to isolate the pure crystalline substance from the water-soluble extract of rye and responsible for the John Stearns effect and named it "Ergometrine" (Dudley, 1935). Almost simultaneously, from three other centers, the isolation of a new water-soluble extract of banyut rye was announced: in the United States (Davis, 1935), in the United Kingdom (Thompson, 1935) and in Switzerland (Stoll, 1935).. It turned out to be the same substance. The Americans called their preparation ergonovine and the Swiss used the name ergobasine.
Rye and LSD
Rye has had an indirect influence on recreational pharmacology. The cool, moist climate in which rye thrives is also favorable for the growth of the ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea). Between the 11th and 16th centuries, contamination of rye flour with ergot was responsible for epidemics called Holy Fire or Saint Anthony's Fire, a disease with two sets of symptoms: progressive gangrene of the extremities and mental disorders.
In the early 20th century, chemists isolated from ergot a set of alkaloids with very different effects: one stimulates the uterine muscle, others are hallucinogenic, and some constrict blood vessels. All these alkaloids have a basic component in common, called lysergic acid. In 1943, Swiss scientist Albert Hofman discovered the particular variant that achieved such fame in the 1960s: the hallucinogenic lysergic acid diethylamide, or LSD.
Production and consumption
| Major producers of rye | 2018 (t) | 2016 (t) | 2012 (t) |
|---|---|---|---|
 European Union | 6,263,527 | 7,402,720 | 8,746,414 |
 Germany | 2,201,400 | 3.173,800 | 3,893,000 |
 Poland | 2,166,884 | 2,199,578 | 2,888,137 |
 Russia | 1,916,506 | 2,541,239 | 2,131,519 |
 China | 1,044,776 | 525.279 | 678,000 |
 Belarus | 502,505 | 650.934 | 1,082,405 |
 Denmark | 482,166 | 577,200 | 384,400 |
 Ukraine | 393,780 | 391,560 | 676,800 |
 Spain | 388.467 | 316,236 | 296,700 |
 Turkey | 320,000 | 370,000 | |
 Canada | 236,400 | 382,000 | 336,600 |
 United States | 214,180 | 341,670 | |
| Global total | 12,318,355 | 12,944,096 | 14,615,719 |
Rye is mainly grown in eastern, central and northern Europe: northern Germany, Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia and towards central and northern Russia. It also thrives in North America: Canada, the United States; South America: Argentina, Brazil; Asia: Turkey, Kazakhstan, and northern China.
The levels of its production continue to decline in many of the producing nations, due to lower demand. For example, Russian production went from 13.9 million t in 1992 to 3.4 Mt in 2005. In Poland - 5.9 Mt in 1992 to 3.4 Mt in 2005; Germany - 3.3 Mt & 2.8 mt; Belarus - 3.1 Mt & 1.2 mt; China - 1.7 Mt & 0.6 mt; Kazakhstan - 0.6 Mt & 0.02 Mt.[citation required]
Much rye is consumed locally, and is usually exported to neighboring countries, not long distances.
Triticale
Triticale is a hybrid cereal, product of the cross between wheat and rye. Both rye crossed with bread wheat (soft) and that obtained by crossing with durum wheat are considered triticale, being the triticales marketed today coming from this last crossing.
Triticale was created in the laboratory at the end of the XIX century, and in 1876 it was obtained for the first time, but it was sterile, and by 1888 it was already fertile. It was first cultivated in Scotland and Sweden.
The interest of triticale consists in the possibility of bringing together in the same species the favorable characteristics of both wheat and rye. Like these two species, it contains gluten and is not suitable for consumption by people with gluten-related disorders.Cite error: The opening tag <ref> is misspelled or named
Studies on the improvement of triticale began in Mexico in 1962 by the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize winner, American doctor Norman E. Borlaug (1914-2009), a researcher at the International Center for Maize and Wheat Improvement (CIMMYT).), in El Batán, near Texcoco, State of Mexico, and the Northwest Agricultural Research Center (CIANO), located in Ciudad Obregón, Sonora.
Doctor Borlaug saw the competitive potential of this hybrid with wheat in marginal environments and soils (despite the precarious genetic resources of that time) thanks to its earliness, ear fertility, good grain filling and its genetic stability. Thanks to the genetic improvement carried out in Mexico by researchers for more than 40 years, spring triticale ceased to be a scientific curiosity and became a competitive crop in this country.
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