Colonialism
Before 1810 From 1810 to 1945 From 1945 to 1990 After 1990
Colonialism is the political and economic system by which a foreign State dominates and exploits a colony. In general, military force is used, which the invaded country cannot oppose and the colonizer, invader or conqueror imposes military, political, economic and social control, usually by designating people originating from the conquering country. Colonization supposes the usurpation and appropriation of the land, and with it, its wealth and resources; the subjugation of the population, which can be considered slaves or without the rights of the metropolis, the imposition of the interests of the metropolis over those of the colonized country in matters of culture, religion, military strategy, economic strategy, civil, political or social rights.
Between 1870 and 1914 a wave of scientific and technological innovations transformed the European economy and society through the so-called Second Industrial Revolution. The rise of France, Germany and the United States moderated Britain's supremacy as the world's leading economic power
With this new economic, technical and military superiority, Europe launched to conquer vast territories around the world.
Colonialism is also the doctrine that legitimizes the political and economic domination of a territory or a nation by the government of a foreign state.
Colonialism should not be confused with neocolonialism. The latter uses control and indirect force to influence, control or subdue a territory such as mercantilism, political clientelism, business globalization, cultural imperialism and other instruments to influence a country, normally establishing a political and economic elite. to control the population and appropriate, as in traditional colonialism, the country's resources.
Traditional colonialism exercises direct control through military force, the occupation of the country, the imposition of rulers from the invading metropolis in the territory subject to domination, and the establishment of economic, social and cultural policies at the service of the colonizing country.
Historical origin
There were Sumerian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Phoenician, Carthaginian, Greek, Roman, Mayan, Inca, Aztec, Japanese, Chinese, Indian, Ghanian, Malian colonies, etc. [citation required]
In the 15th century, European expansion gave rise to colonies similar to the Romans, Greeks, etc., in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania, extending into the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.[citation required]
European colonialism
European colonialism had two main stages: a first in the XVI century carried out by the Spanish and Portuguese empires, followed by the English, French and Dutch, and a second wave, which occurred mainly in the last third of the 19th century and first half of the XX century, during which several European countries conquered other continents very quickly. The main colonialist countries at that time were Belgium, France, the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Italy, Russia, Denmark and the Netherlands. The causes of this colonialism were mainly technological and economic and, secondarily, political and cultural factors also had an influence.
Technological causes
Although by the XIV century China was technologically ahead of the Old Continent, the fragmentation of Europe into small states that fought among themselves Yes, during the Modern Age, it led there to an improvement in military technology. Although cannons and gunpowder were known in China, the warlike needs of the Europeans led to their improvement and widespread use. By contrast, China was a huge unified empire, with little infighting and surrounded by enemies, generally far less powerful militarily. In addition, Europe had some important resources such as coal which, during the 18th century, would be very important. This allowed the Europeans to outperform the steelmaking techniques, since China had traditionally been superior in this technological aspect. Finally, it should be noted that China and Asia together had a higher production than Europe, and when the Europeans found themselves with a military technological advantage, some countries decided to make incursions into Asia militarily in order to seize the economic potential of China and India. In fact, during the Modern Age, Asia was the most economically productive continent. Around 1500, the Middle East, India and China concentrated about 60% of world production, and shortly before 1800 80% of it. During the 18th century, textiles from India were extensively exported to France and England. And plenty of Chinese industrial products were present both in colonial America from the 17th century century and in Europe. It is estimated that 75% of the silver extracted by the Spanish in America ended up in China in exchange for the purchase of products manufactured in China. The European Industrial Revolution upset this balance and, through military conquest, much of Asia passed to be controlled by European powers. In his book Guns, Germs and Steel Jared Diamond analyzes the technological and material conditions of Europe compared to those of other continents, explaining which material and technological factors generated the European military advantage.
In the case of China, after several wars and setbacks (Opium Wars) the government of the Qing dynasty was forced to sign a series of unequal treaties that granted great benefits to the powers Europe, the United States and Japan. In the case of India and many other territories in Asia and Africa, these ended up under the direct control of foreign powers.
Economic causes
The economic crisis of over-production in Europe in the 1550s and 1750s was solved with protectionist measures and protecting national production from foreign competition. They tried to do it by putting customs duties and taxes, which did not work and the crisis continued to worsen. Another solution was sought, now more effective: take the European surplus overseas, since the colonies were a good market for several reasons:
- Investment: Europe had no capital to invest, but since there were no guarantees of return, investors went to the colonies.
- Agricultural products, and raw materials in general, are necessary but were in the colonies and sold in Europe.
- Cheap labor: the labor of the colonies was more profitable than the European.
Political causes
“Political causes” would encompass many motives and events. In 1871 France was defeated by Prussia in the so-called Franco-Prussian War. This provoked a wide feeling of national humiliation and the government of the newly established Third Republic encouraged colonial expansion. Some of the political causes were, therefore:
- To be seen as an international power developing imperialism;
- Nationalism: Colonialism allows the French citizens who belong to a great country to think.
- Strategy: Conquering certain strategic points allowed them to have naval bases at different points of the planet that in case of war could always be used.
Although it must be understood that these «political reasons» were mixed with other economic ones.
Cultural causes
Europeans used their Eurocentric prejudices and the excuse of evangelizing non-Christian peoples almost continuously from the discovery of America to the colonization of Indochina. The religious proselytism that has always been present in the European worldview helped to justify and support the use of the military technological advantage that Europe gained due to its access to resources and the history of internecine warfare on the continent.
In addition, due to their close contact with Eurasia and Africa, Europeans became resistant to certain pandemics, against which other more isolated peoples (American Indians and Polynesians) were not so resistant. Much of the demographic decline in the Americas after the arrival of the first Europeans was due to pandemic diseases to which the American peoples had not previously been exposed.
In addition, the large-scale slave trade that Europeans, North Africans, and Muslims had practiced for centuries was a part of the colonial mode of production that Europeans used to exploit resources for labor even in regions where previously the density of population would not have allowed intensive use, had it not had slaves.
Justifications
Supporters of colonialism, in some cases, justified themselves by creating an ideology based on racism. One of its bases was to believe that colonialism had a civilizing mission, considering that the only civilized ones were the "big countries", the rest being considered uncivilized and savage. This racist ideology generated in Europe a feeling of superiority. But there was also a harsh criticism of imperialism, the socialists and the members of the labor unions were the ones who criticized it most harshly. A third way, with the most moderate supporters, justified it by saying that it was a solution to the European capitalist crisis.
Colonial expansion
Colonial expansion began in the last third of the 19th century. There were four exceptions to this date, France, Great Britain, Spain and Portugal, which started it earlier.
Among the settlers were: soldiers, migrant workers, politicians and civil servants, missionaries (Catholic and Protestant) and explorers.
Given the superiority of the army of the metropolis, some indigenous people surrendered (pact) and others were conquered and subdued by means of war.
Colonial conflicts
They were territorial conflicts between European nations. They occurred when two or more nations disputed a territory. There came to be wars because of the aforementioned conflicts. The idea of the Continuous Empire that several metropolises had was the origin of many of them. Great Britain wanted to establish an empire in Africa from north to south. France from west to east, in the northern third of Africa. Finally, Portugal, also from west to east, but in the south. There were conflicts between Great Britain and France, first, and then with Portugal, which she won, so these two countries had to abandon the idea of a Continuing Empire.
Methods of communication
They were always interested in the means of communication between the metropolises and their colonies. With Africa it was relatively easy, but with Asia it was not. To solve this problem, the French, through the architect Lesseps, embarked on the construction, with Egyptian authorization, of the Suez Canal. The English realize the economic importance of the canal and negotiate with the sultan of Egypt to buy their shares. This operation was carried out and the channel became Franco-British.
A few years later, most of the French shareholders left their shares and these passed into the hands of the English, thus having complete control of the canal. Time later a protectorate would be established in Egypt.
Major colonial empires
Spanish colonial empire
The Spanish colonial empire was one of the first colonial empires to appear and one of the largest. Along with Portugal, it was one of the colonialist European powers of the 16th century. Its structure was viceregal, that is, it was organized into viceroyalties. The leader of a viceroyalty was the viceroy, who was the highest representative of the king in that territory. Spain created two viceroyalties in America: New Spain (present-day Mexico, Central America and the Philippines) and Peru (from Panama passing through Chile to Cape Horn), although later there would be four, adding New Granada (Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama) and that of Río de la Plata (Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia). Each viceroyalty was organized in Captaincy Generals and these in turn by governorships. In 1580, during the reign of Felipe II, Spain would annex Portugal to her Empire thanks to the inheritance of this king by his mother, Isabel of Portugal. This period would be the Golden Age of Spain.
In the Age of Enlightenment, it would have continuous conflicts with Great Britain and other European powers, such as the War of the Spanish Succession, the War of the Austrian Succession or the Seven Years' War, among others. Spain would also experience a great colonial expansion in this century, consolidating its supremacy in America, in addition to the fact that after the Seven Years' War, it would receive the great territory of Louisiana from France, and later, it would fight with Great Britain for control. of the Territory of Nutca.
Most of the Spanish colonies would become independent after 1810, thanks to the Napoleonic invasion of Spain. The first nation to secede from Spain was the Río de la Plata (present-day Argentina) along with Paraguay in 1810, and the last, Bolivia in 1825. However, Spain continued to have power over Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, but these Territories would leave Spanish rule in 1898 after the Spanish defeat in the Spanish-American War.
In the XX century, Spain would maintain the colonies of Spanish Sahara, Equatorial Guinea and the Protectorate of Morocco. The last to cease to be part of Spain was the Sahara, which was transferred to Mauritania and Morocco in 1976.
The Canary Islands were the object of an attempt to be seen as a case of decolonization. At the beginning of 1978 a commission formed by Algeria, Libya, Senegal, Nigeria and Guinea, would supervise a "decolonization process" for these islands. The matter would also be raised with the then OAU Secretary General, William Eteki. Another action in favor of the independence of the Canary Islands would be to go to New York, and present a resolution favorable to the independence of the archipelago before the General Assembly of the United Nations. After the study of the case by the United Nations Organization, the Canary Islands were excluded from the 17 territories that by 2020 are non-autonomous and pending decolonization, because they are an integral part of the political body of the Spanish State. Gibraltar is one of the colonial territories, as it is declared dependent on the United Kingdom and not an integral part of it according to UN criteria.
The Spanish colonial Empire is considered the fourth largest empire in history, only surpassed by Russia, Great Britain and Mongolia, and leaving behind other great empires such as the Arab Caliphates, China, Rome, France or Portugal among many others others.
Portuguese Empire
The Portuguese Empire was the first to make stable settlements in Africa and the second in America (shortly after Spain). Its possessions consisted, above all, of Brazil, Angola and Mozambique, although during its first centuries, it maintained factories on the Indian Coast, much of the African Coast, in the East Indies and in Timor-Leste (East Timor).
One of the most notable trades in the history of Portugal is the African slave trade through the triangular trade method (the metropolis sent manufactures to the African colonies and from there sent more manufactures and slaves to America and the wealth of this the latter went to the metropolis), in fact, it was the main source of slaves for the United Kingdom, France and Spain in the 17th, 18th and early 19th centuries.
In 1580, Philip II of Spain acceded to the Portuguese throne after being victorious in the Battle of Terceira Island (last battle of the War of the Portuguese Succession). Portugal would form part of the Hispanic Monarchy and its polysynodial system of Councils (respecting the charters and privileges of each territory but placing the Spanish king as its sovereign) until in 1640, when it proclaimed its independence due to the Union of Arms proposed by the Count -Duke of Olivares who proposed equalizing the contribution in taxes and military levies according to the wealth and population of each territory of the Hispanic Monarchy. Portugal continued to expand Brazil until it became independent in 1822. Despite this, Portugal maintained and expanded its African colonies its independence in 1974 (Angola), and 1975 (Mozambique).
British Colonial Empire
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The British colonial empire was the largest in the world. India was the richest colony, due to its products and its population. It was a great market. It was conquered between 1845 and 1848 by a private English company, the British East India Company. In 1857 a revolt broke out by the Indian components of the English troops (sepoys). It was difficult to contain it, so by doing so, Queen Victoria transferred power to the State. She was proclaimed Empress of India (1876). Later, the British made military expeditions to reinforce the Indian borders. They conquered North America, much of Oceania, Guyana, Burma and, east of Asia, Malaysia. In Africa they made conquests from Egypt and the Nile Valley to the Indian Ocean and South Africa, where they had to fight with former Dutch (Boer) settlers.
French Colonial Empire
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The French colonial empire begins under the reign of Louis XIII. At this time, France would create the Viceroyalty of New France, with its capital in Quebec. Later, during Louis XIV, he would also create Louisiana, an extensive territory that included the center of the continent. He would also found the colony of French Guiana and Spain would give him Haiti. After the Seven Years' War, lost by the France of Louis XV, Louisiana would be given to Spain and New France to Great Britain. After this fact, the French Empire would be reduced to Haiti and French Guiana.
After Napoleon, France began to colonize West Africa and Southeast Asia. The result was a large and long-lasting Colonial Empire, encompassing a third of the African continent, Madagascar, and Indochina. This empire would withstand both world wars, but would fragment shortly after World War II.
At its height (1680), the first French colonial empire spanned more than 10,000,000 km², the second largest empire in the world at the time behind only the Spanish Empire. At its height, the second French colonial empire was one of the largest empires in history: including metropolitan France, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached 13,500,000 km² in 1939, with a population of 150 million people in 1939.
The total area of the French Colonial Empire, with the first (mostly in North America) and second (mostly in Africa) French colonial empires combined, reached 24,000,000 km², the second largest in the world (the former being the French Colonial Empire). British).
Case of the Congo
There were only two independent states left in Africa: Liberia and Abyssinia. The distribution that occurred in Africa caused clashes. In the Congo region, specifically, the ambitions of the United Kingdom, France, the German Empire, Portugal and the International Association for the Exploitation and Colonization of Africa, of King Leopold II of Belgium, converged. To avoid military confrontations, the European powers met at the Berlin Conference (1885) where they decided the rules for the occupation of land in Africa and approved that Congo became the property of King Leopold's African Association. On his death, he bequeathed it to the kingdom of Belgium.
Case of Morocco
At the end of the 19th century, the Kingdom of Morocco was one of the few African countries that remained independent even though France tried to occupy it. A crisis ensued because Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany opposed it in 1905. In 1906, at the Algeciras Conference, it was decided that Morocco would be divided as a protectorate between France and Spain. In some areas there was strong resistance, for example, in the north, Abd-el-Krim caused problems for the Spanish army.
The Chinese Question
China was dominated by the Manchu Qing dynasty, of different origin than the majority of the population (Han), for which reason they were considered foreigners by Europeans. By 1820 China's share of world GDP was over 35%, while Europe's contribution was less than 25%. In fact, around 1800, two thirds of world GDP corresponded to Asia.
China, therefore, was an economic power, a highly populated country and an ideal market for the great powers. Chinese products were exported to Europe and the trade balance was favorable to China, it is estimated that 75% of the silver extracted in America ended up being exchanged in China in exchange for Chinese products. For that reason, the Europeans, particularly the British, sought other commodities besides silver to exchange for Chinese goods. British opium dealers tried to sell opium and promote consumption so they could sell opium in exchange for other Chinese goods. However, opium was banned in China, although a growing percentage of the population was addicted. The Opium Wars (1838-1860) were aimed at forcing China to buy European products, and they imposed the so-called Unequal Treaties. China was forced to buy products from the powers, and the opium traffic carried out from Hong Kong had to be consented to by the British military threat. The Europeans installed other permanent places with the aim of dominating all of China's foreign trade and even its railways. This sparked revolts against the Manchu monarchs, but the armies of the metropolises repelled them. However, culturally China was highly independent and the European cultural impact was limited, despite the subordination of many of its policies to European interests.
Political organization and economic exploitation of the colonies
Political organization
There are three types of colonies in terms of political organization:
- Exploitation colonies: where the population is indigenous, the government is that of the metropolis, but through a resident office, a governor. Thus the colony is subject to the metropolis;
- Population colonies: the population is made up of settlers and the government is its own. Makes its decisions autonomously regarding the metropolis;
- Protected: they emerge from a pact between the indigenous and the colonizers. The metropolis allows indigenous power to be maintained, which are the population of the colony. Therefore power is divided between internal politics, governed by an indigenous government, and foreign policy in the hands of the metropolis.
Economic exploitation
Indigenous people are exploited to obtain benefits, which are always for the metropolis. There are several types of exploitation:
- Agricultural exploitation (plantations).
- Mining exploitation (by the State or by individuals).
- Exploitation of energy sources.
- Exploitation of raw materials.
- Exploitation of indigenous labour, which deals with all the above.
The colonial economy is based on preventing the industrial development of the colonies, in this way the metropolis sells expensive manufactured products (industrial, totally elaborated) while buying raw materials cheaply from the colony (minerals, agricultural products, livestock, etc.) and energy sources. This benefits the metropolis and harms the colony. Another way to harm the colonies is through unfair trade, in some cases the colony can only trade with its mother country, with prices imposed by the mother country, which tend to benefit it.
Colonial Society
It is a dual society, on the one hand colonizers and on the other indigenous or autochthonous population, without close coexistence between both parties although they share the territory, but without mixing. Each of these two parts of society has its own organization. This absence of deep interrelation can be interpreted as a racist society, and that maintains the colonizers with a comfortable life from which they manage political and economic power. Within indigenous society, two groups can be distinguished:
- Political leaders of the tribes: they are those who agreed with the metropolis. They will maintain their social and economic status;
- Workers: they are the vast majority and are employed in any activity that is necessary.
Consequences
Colonialism has had very important historical consequences from the economic, demographic, linguistic, cultural, religious and political points of view. On the economic level, the European Industrial Revolution required raw materials from its colonies and the labor force, as well as some basic raw materials.
The consequences were enormous in America, where the autochthonous population, highly vulnerable to epidemics of Eurasian origin, was decimated. In Africa the demographic consequences were minor, South Africa is one of the countries with the greatest European demographic impact. In Asia, except for the famines in India at the end of the XIX century, caused by the production system imposed with the British, the consequences had only a transitory impact. From a linguistic point of view, colonialism prepared the ground for the use of European languages as diplomatic and commercial languages. The number of speakers of English, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch owes much to the demographic effects of colonialism.
Among the most negative consequences we can mention: the destruction of indigenous society; total economic exploitation; change of the values of the natives, foreign culture, of the metropolis; and the attempt to create the Continuous Empire, uniting disparate territories and also generating conflicts to achieve it, even having to avoid other metropolises.
Dominations
This domination can be political, military, informational, cultural, economic or ethnic.
It can also be called neocolonialism to refer to economic and even political domination over a legally independent state. In a similar sense the terms imperialism and new imperialism are used.
Unlike imperialism; colonialism seeks to take violations further. The settler is the one who must go to the colony to implant his culture and settle there. The process that the population of the colony lives is called acculturation (going to carry a culture with another "more powerful"). Colonialism is not as economic a term as imperialism, which seeks raw materials and labor in the colony to then produce in the country and finally return and sell in the colony from which it obtained the material.
Colonial importance and its historiography has played a large role within historical disciplines, and has been strengthened at the end of the century XX and beginning of the XXI as a result of the need to better understand global processes.
Decolonization
During the course of the XX century, the European colonies in Africa and Asia and some remaining colonies in the Americas became independent continental. In the Caribbean and Africa, there were still European colonies in the second decade of the XXI century.
The World Book Encyclopedia refers to some other unruly "children" who were also "successfully born" during the postwar era. Referring to "The Rise of New Nations," he explains: "After World War II, one by one the vast European empires collapsed. Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and the other great colonial powers had been weakened by their losses during the war. They could no longer hold their colonies by force." Among the first colonies to gain independence were Indonesia, the Philippines, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Ghana.
The trend towards political independence has continued and has resulted in the birth of at least a hundred new nations since 1945 and some returns of territories to their countries of origin, such as Hong Kong and Macao in 1997 and 1999 respectively.
Colonial Empires
- Portuguese Empire (1415-1975/1999)
- Spanish Empire (1402/1492-1976)
- Ottoman Empire (1299-1922)
- Dutch Empire (1603-1975)
- French colonial Empire (1534-1980)
- Danish colonial Empire (1206-1953)
- British Empire (1583-1997)
- Swedish colonial Empire (1638-1663)
- German colonial Empire (1880-1920)
- Italian colonial Empire (1882-1947/1960)
- Belgian colonial Empire (1908-1962)
- Japanese colonial Empire (1895-1945)