Cello

The cello or violoncello (often abbreviated with the term cello) is a bowed string musical instrument belonging to the family of the violin. Within this family of orchestral instruments, due to its size and register, the cello occupies a place between violas, double basses and octabass. It is one of the basic and fundamental instruments of the orchestra within the string group, normally performing the bass parts, although its versatility also allows the instrumentalists who play it to interpret melodic parts. The cello can also be played in the sauce. Traditionally it is considered one of the string instruments that most closely resembles the human voice.

Throughout the history of music, many works have been composed for cello due to its great importance within the musical scene, as it is a basic instrument in many instrumental formations (especially in quartets).

According to the RAE, the player of a cello is called a "cellist", "cellist" or "cellist". The cellist plays the cello seated on a chair or a stool, holding his instrument between his legs (supporting it on the ground by means of a metal stem called a spike, prop, spike or pivot) and rubbing the strings with a bow.

Etymology and correct terminology in Spanish

The terms "violoncello" and "violoncello" come from the Italian name violoncello. It is common to refer to the instrument by the apheresis "cello", but in written language This must be spelled according to the spelling of the Spanish language ("chelo"). The spelling «cello» (also pronounced as «chelo») is typical of the Italian language and constitutes a mistake in the Spanish language.

The terms "violoncello", "cello" and "cello" are therefore correct. The terms "violoncello", "violonchello" or "cello" are incorrect, among others.

On the other hand, the cello should not be called a "violon". The term "violon" is a synonym for a larger instrument: the double bass.

Description

Parts of a cello.

General information

A cello lying on the ground.

Regarding its physical characteristics, the parts that make up a cello are the same as those of the rest of the violin family, classified within bowed string instruments.

The sound box, or body of the cello, is made up of an upper cover, a lower cover and a girdle, which is a section of wood that joins both covers creating a hollow box. Inside this body, on the top, next to the low strings, is the harmonic bar whose function is structural reinforcement, while serving to control and distribute vibration (sound), transmitting sounds to the top; and the soul, a transversal wooden rod that joins the two tops of the cello on the side of the high strings, which serves to modify and balance the response of the four strings. In the upper lid there are two holes —called "efes" (because of their shape similar to this letter) or "ears"— on both sides (with respect to the strings) through which part of the sound comes out. Seen from the front, the main part of its body resembles an "8", due to two notches, which are concavities that allow a better hold of the instrument with the knees, and above all, give the instrument freedom of movement. bow so that it does not collide with the body when the most lateral strings are played, in this case, the do and the la.

The body is attached to an extension called the mast or neck. Starting from the top, first there is the head with the volute (also called snail) and the pegbox, where the pegs are inserted, which serve to hold the strings and regulate their tension; on this and extending almost to the bridge is the fingerboard, a hard wooden plate without frets (similarly to the rest of the instruments of the violin family, and unlike the guitar) that serves to "step on" the strings getting different notes. Located a little below the middle of the body of the instrument, is the bridge and a little below the tailpiece (which holds the strings and helps to tune the cello, since the keys (micro-tuner) are included there, small metal pieces with the same function as the pins). The button is embedded in its lower part, from where the spike or prop (also known as a spike) comes out, which is a metal piece, whose function is to support the instrument on the ground and regulate its height for the comfort of the cellist.

Although the professional standard cello size is 4/4, there are other, smaller sized instruments such as 3/4, 1/2, 1/4, or 1/8. Cellos originally, in the Baroque period, had a shorter neck, thinner drawbar, and shorter fingerboard than modern cellos.

Bridge

The bridge is a piece of wood that is located towards the middle of the top of the cello and on which the four strings rest. It has to be in a slightly inclined position towards the tailpiece and at the same distance from the two F's. It is not glued or nailed to the top, but is held in place by the pressure exerted by the strings. Its upper part is curved, which means that the four strings along the neck and the fingerboard are not in the same plane. The bridges of Baroque cellos were smaller and had a less curved top. There are several models of bridges, among which the Belgian bridge and the French bridge stand out. The French bridge offers a less bright and thicker sound, while the Belgian bridge offers a brighter sound, and a greater sound projection.

Strings and tuning

The four strings of the cello.

The strings are named according to their tuning: the first string (counting from the most acute to the most severe, and from right to left in the image) is theThe second rope is reThe third rope is Sun And the fourth string is do (Cello strings.ogg (?·i)). Just like she rapes her, but in a more serious octave.

The general register of the cello occupies a little more than seven octaves: it goes from C₂, two octaves below the middle C of the keyboard of a piano and that is generated by vibrating —with the finger or with the bow— the lowest open string, which means without resting any finger on the string on the neck, up to c₇ (in the highest position of the first string la₃), although higher (higher) notes can be achieved, as there is no limitation physical. Another method of getting very high notes is with harmonics. There are two types of harmonics: The first, called natural harmonics, are produced by touching —and not pressing— the string in its fractions (1/2, 1/3 or 2/3, 1/4…). The second ones, called artificial harmonics, are a combination of pressing down on the string and playing it at another point. The latter are the most difficult to obtain.

Notes that emit the four strings of the cello (when they are pressed into the air); to the right, in the sun key the sharpest note that can run the first string of the cello (a the₅), and the sharpest note that can execute the first string performing a harmonic (a the₇).

When the cello strings emit serious sounds, the scores are not usually written in the treble clef, but the most common is to write and read them in the bass clef on the fourth line of the staff, which is the symbol that you see in the image to the left of the notes. But it is relatively common for other clefs to be used for high registers, especially the C clef in fourth and the sol clef.

In the beginning, the strings were gut strings, less resistant than metal strings, but which gave a purer and warmer sound. These strings were used until the 20th century. As a result of the Second World War, the use of metallic strings became general, more resistant and with greater sound than the others. There are also nylon strings and other materials. Gut strings continue to be made, as many players who have baroque instruments or who play baroque music find the sonority with this type of string to be much closer to the composer's original idea.

Positions

Mstislav Rostropóvich at a concert at the White House on September 17, 1978.

The cellist places their fingers at different heights on the neck of the instrument to play different notes. The heights that the player's hand can assume according to the notes he is playing are called positions (in the same way as in other string instruments). These are ordered by assigning numbers. On the cello there are 7 normal positions and the rest of the higher positions use the thumb (that's why they are called thumb positions).

The first seven positions use the index, middle, ring, and little fingers of the left hand. In thumb positions it is played with the thumb, index, middle, and ring fingers of the same hand (use of the little finger in thumb positions is rare).

The bow

The cello is generally played with a bow that is made up of a wooden stick on which bristles made from horsehair or acrylic imitations are stretched. The bow is made up of a head, a rod, and bristles.

From top to bottom, three nuts: violin, viola and cello respectively.

In the head is the nut (ebony piece with mother-of-pearl ornaments to hold the bristles) and the screw that is used to regulate the degree of tension of the bristles. The shaft is a pernambuco wood shaft normally, although it is being replaced by carbon fiber; one end is called the tip and the other heel (where the head is).

There are usually about 250 bristles, although their number can vary. They normally belong to male horses, because their manes are stronger and cleaner. The most prized mane is that of horses from the Nordic areas or from colder climates, since its resistance and hardness is greater, especially that of the Mongolian horse, bred expressly for making bows. In principle, the color does not influence, although it seems that the white bristles are somewhat finer. Some cellists and double bassists prefer black bristles because they say they add more character to the playing. The bristles, by themselves, do not make any kind of grip on the rope when it is rubbed, since they are very smooth. For this reason, a sticky resin called fish or rosin is applied to them. The rosin is also useful to obtain a good sonority and make profitable the duration of the stringing of the bow.

The bow has evolved over the centuries. It was already known in the most primitive cultures and arrived in Europe around the 11th century. At the beginning it was a mere rod that was bent by the tension of the bristles outwards and that was grasped in the center (like a hunting bow). There was virtually no change until the 17th century, when the walnut was added to the heel to increase the weight of the bow, as well as allowing the tension to be changed and the slide to bend inward, improving acoustic quality. The convexity of the arch was changed to its present form in the 18th century. It was Tourte and Villaume in the 19th century who established the arch as we know it today.

Materials

Like violins, the soundboard top is usually made of spruce wood and maple wood is used for the rest, but other types of wood are also used, such as beech, beech, willow or cedar. The bridge is maple. Some low-quality cellos are made of laminates, and cellos have already been made of composite materials, such as carbon fiber. The neck and headstock are usually also made of some type of wood mentioned above, usually very veined maple for those fine. The pegs, fingerboard and tailpiece are made of ebony wood, although nowadays more and more of some type of stained wood or plastic is made, especially the tailpiece. The tensioners or tuners found in the tailpiece are generally made of steel, like the pike, although the latter in some cases are made of carbon fiber, and even some pikes are still made of wood.

History

Origin

Code Manesse (1305-1340), showing a viola da braccio.

Contrary to popular belief, the precursors of the cello appeared in the first half of the 16th century in Italy not as descendants of the viola da gamba ('viola de leg'), but that belong to the family of violins, and were born from the viola da braccio ('viola of arm')^{[citation required]}, towards 1530, just a few years after the violin. For the manufacture of these new instruments, they used characteristics of others, such as the rebec, although it only had three strings. It has also been shown that it had nothing to do with the family of old violas (such as the viola da gamba, for example), neither in construction, nor in technique, nor in interpretation..

In the early days, there were more instruments similar to the cello, such as the violon, which was used as a basso continuo. In addition, there were others such as violonzino or basset, which would belong to the same family, but would be interpreted in different ways or would have other sizes or a different number of strings. There was also the viola d’amore (viola de amor), for example, whose origin is different, but which is reminiscent of the cello in terms of its interpretation (with a bow) and its support. At first it was supported by holding it with a rope around the waist, either over the shoulder (da spalla), or between the knees or on the ground. There were many different types of cellos, from the tenor, to others of larger sizes, with different ranges and different ways of holding.

First modifications

In the 17th century they were Italian luthiers, like the Maggini, the Amati (from Cremona, one of the oldest known is a creation of Andrea Amati, from 1572, called The King, in honor of King Charles IX of France, and which has royal motifs, and which is very similar to current cellos) or Gasparo da Salò (from Brescia) who varied the shape and size of the old cellos.

On the left, a baroque cello, and on the right, a viola da gamba, from the Museum of Music of Paris.

Many of these cellos were merely decorative, like some that still exist (like Amati's), but most of them were built to be used. At the beginning of the 18th century, Stradivarius normalized its size, changing it from 80 to 76 cm, very similar to the current size. Today Stradivarius cellos are some of the most expensive in existence, and even in their own day, violin makers who also made cellos may have made much more money building these instruments than they did building violins.

As a sign of its rapid popularity, in 1680 it was already included as a permanent instrument in the Imperial Orchestra of Vienna and in 1709, the Dresden Symphony Orchestra already had four cellos. The first works created specifically for cello were by Doménico Gabrielli and Giuseppe Maria Jacchini (c. 1663-1727) around 1689.

During its early years, until the first half of the 18th century, it was in competition for repertoire with the viola da gamba, as they had a similar timbre and were mostly used as basso continuo. Some of the great composers of the time, such as Marin Marais or Henry Purcell, refused to use the new cello, instead using the viola da gamba and expressly writing in the scores that the interpretation should be be for this instrument.

Luigi Boccherini used it extensively in that century in a catalog of nearly five hundred works, including symphonies, concertos, string quartets, and 184 quintets (of which 113 are for two cellos).

Violoncello da spalla.

Baroque

Prelude to the Suite n.o 1 for cello alone in sunshineBach.

The heyday of the cello began during the Baroque. Many composers use it on a recurring basis as a continuo in their works, along with the harpsichord, and it is already beginning to be used for smaller groups, duets, trios, and quartets.

Violoncello da spalla

Johann Sebastian Bach has long been credited with the unverifiable creation of the viola di fagotto or "violoncello piccolo da spalla" [small shoulder cello], used by Bach for his Leipzig Cantatas ), which in his five-string version serves to interpret his Solo Cello Suite No. 6 . This violoncello piccolo da spalla was created to be played by violinists (not very expert in playing da gamba, with the instrument upright and held between the legs), since it it was interpreted placed on the shoulder and chest, and was larger than the current viola. Some researchers believe that the 6 suites for solo cello were actually created for this instrument.

The baroque cello

Vivaldi already composed 27 cello concertos, and in the second half of the XVIII century Luigi Boccherini, who was also a virtuoso cellist, dedicated 12 concerts to this instrument.

With the great popularity it had as a continuo, it ended up totally displacing the viola da gamba in this period, and it was consolidated as a recurring instrument in chamber ensembles.

The cello that was used throughout this period is called the baroque cello, and is practically identical to the modern cello. Many examples of this type of cello are still preserved and are also still being manufactured, since musicians who perform Baroque works consider that the sound of these instruments is much more suitable for this type of music. The Baroque cello did not have a peg, the metal rod that modern cellos have to hold it to the ground, which is much more convenient to leave the left hand enough freedom for the technical complications of post-Baroque works.

This effect was produced because by holding the cello with the legs and with the left hand, which creates the different sounds by pressing the strings on the neck, the tension in this hand increased and the agility of the fingers decreased. Also, gut strings were used at this time, not the metal strings that are used now, which gave it a completely different sound. The la of Baroque instruments was tuned to 415 Hz instead of today's 440 Hz, due in part to those non-metallic strings and the lower tension on them. The bridge was somewhat lower and the curvature of its upper part was less, the neck was more robust and the neck was less inclined and shorter. Also, the frame inside was smaller. This baroque cello made the sound less projected.

Classicism

String Quartet No. 2 op. 33, Haydn.

In this period, Haydn and Beethoven were two of the great composers who praised the figure of the cello and composed a large number of works for it, already as a solo instrument. In addition, the cello was consolidated as a fundamental piece, as a bass, in the vast majority of quartets and trios composed at this time, and was used by practically all composers.

Large concert halls

From the year 1800 is when all the physical changes that resulted in the modern cello began to be made. At this time, the small chamber halls were replaced by large concert halls and opera houses. The cello already had a large repertoire as a soloist, and needed to project the sound more so that it could be heard without problems over the rest of the orchestra in a more defined way and to reach a much larger audience than in previous times.

Romanticism

Already in the XIX century is when one of the greatest characteristics of the modern cello is introduced, the pike. At first, this was made of wood, and fixed, but it allowed the cellist to reach a virtuoso technique that without the support of the pike was more complicated, with which the cello works also became increasingly complex.

Musical romanticism can be considered the Golden Age of the cello. Schumann, Brahms, Dvořák or Mendelssohn composed cello concertos, not to mention sonatas and various works for cello and piano. With the establishment of the symphony orchestra, the cello definitely became the third most numerous instrument, after the violin and the viola.

20th century

During the XX century, a lot of cello music continued to be composed, with composers such as Ravel, Debussy and Shostakovich. In addition, starting in the 1920s, the Catalan cellist Pau Casals managed, with his new staging of Bach's Suites for Cello, to return the cello to a privileged position. Great performers such as Rostropovich or Jacqueline du Pré appeared, as well as Anner Blysma with his baroque cello.

Since the 20th century, women began to be cello players, something that had not happened before. For a long time, only upper-class women could have access to musical instruments, and the position of holding the cello between the legs was not well regarded by society, considering it not very aristocratic. There is documentation of other types of postures adopted by some women cellists, holding the instrument on its side. Added to this was the prejudice that existed against female instrumentalists. But already since the 1920s, applauded and valued women cellists appear, such as Guilhermina Suggia or Raya Garbousova.

In the 1990s, the cello was also used for pop, rock and even heavy metal music, such as the Finnish group Apocalyptica, with its three (previously four) cellos, and with the appearance of the electric cello.

Evolution of technique

18th century

Molenaer's picture. The position of the cellist is appreciated, with the cello supported on the ground.

Zick Januarius. The cellist already holds the cello between the legs.

Luigi Boccherini.

During the 17th century, there is practically no data on how the cello technique developed, only the position in which it was played is known due to the iconography of the time, with the cello resting on the floor, and separated from the instrumentalist. There are quite a few pictorial samples from the time in which they show it, but there is no written document.

In the 18th century there is already evidence of a change in position with respect to the cello, which went from being resting on the ground to being held between the knees, as the gamba violists did. This allowed the left hand to be placed on the neck in a much more natural way, and to reach all the strings much more easily. In addition, by raising the cello, it was much easier to use the bow, which in this way could be used in its entirety.

Yes, there is talk of Boccherini's Italian Classical School, with a basic technical system that he adopted in his works for cello.

First methods

Celloist Michel Corrette was the first to publish a method on technique and improving it for cellists. It was in the year 1741, and he called it Méthode théorique et pratique pour apprendre en peu de temps le violoncelle dans sa perfection (in Spanish: Theoretical and practical method to learn the cello in a short time in its perfection). It was the first more or less conscientious attempt that has been preserved on the chelistic technique. If a previous method existed, it has not yet appeared or has been lost. There is a method, by Francesco Scipriani, but it is not dated, so it is not known if it is earlier or later. Corette was the first to capture, in his method, the position of the thumb (thumb) for the positions closest to the bridge, which was made possible precisely because of the change involved in raising the cello off the ground. In addition, he fingers for all the strings in first position, and also talks about middle position.

In Italy they did not pay attention to the study methods and techniques, in Germany it was believed that the only way to learn the techniques of the instrument was through practice itself. While nothing referring to methods was published in these two countries, in France, after Corrette's manual, many others were published, such as those by Tillier or Mutzberger.

Violin technique

But until then, in all countries, the model in terms of instrumental technique had been the technique of the violin, without even taking into account the differences in posture and size. What was done was a transitional posture, in which to imitate the violin, the first, second and fourth fingers were used to cover the same distance that those fingers cover on a violin (a fourth), and later, they were left that diatonic system for a semitonal system, with which to be able to cover, with those same fingers, either a fourth, or a third. It is also at this time when the Tourte changes occur in the bow, which ceases to have a convex curvature and lengthens, and when postural changes occur in the right hand, from holding the bow from below with the palm of the right hand. hand up, to do it from above with palm down.

Towards modern techniques

In 1789, a manual by the English cellist John Gunn appeared, entitled The Theory and Practice of Fingering the Violoncello. In it, a first summary of the history and techniques of the cello is shown. In addition, he gives advice of the type that in order to give agility to the fingers, the neck should not be held with the left hand, so the entire cello should be held with the legs. In addition, the fingering of the fragments of his method corresponds to a modern fingering, and already introduces complex fragments and in very high positions of the cello.

Jean Louis Duport, French cellist of the 18th century, was the author of one of the first cello methods to be know. Entitled Essai sur le doigté du violoncelle et la conduite de l'archet, dédié aux professeurs de violoncelle, it contained quite important innovations in cello technique. One of the most interesting contributions of his work was the establishment of the technique of fingering and digital techniques. He also talks about extensions, double strings, intervals, is fully fingered and is possibly the one that laid the foundations of the cello technique of the XIX century .

Other cellists of this century, such as Dotzauer or Kummer, also advocated definitively abandoning the violin positions, and adopting modern fingering.

19th century

Adrian Servais, with his cello Stradivarius.

In 1846 there is the first record of the use of the pike. It was the Belgian cellist and composer Adrien François Servais, although it seems that there are already documents from previous years recommending the use of a support for beginners to use.

The cellist Piatti moved to London, where he began to create a school with various other performers, such as Leo Stern or Robert Lindley. The French school, based in Paris, diminished its influence and importance that it had in previous years, although it had some figures such as Auguste Franchomme and Chevillard. Nicolas Platel, a disciple of Duport, was the creator of the Brussels School, where Servais began to teach and where he began to stand out. Heir to Servais and Franchomme is the Madrid cello school, started by Víctor Mirecki and which gave its best results in the following century.

But it was in Germany, throughout this century, where the main artistic and technical currents were created, and where modern interpretation techniques began to be developed.

20th century

Throughout the 20th century, cellists have managed to increase the range of the instrument, coming to compete in brilliance with the fiddle. To get better sounds, some cellists begin to use longer pikes, or bent pikes, as Paul Tortelier or Mstislav Rostropovich do, to get better sonority when the instrument is raised, which means that with the right hand, with the bow, it is in a more natural position, and that the left can go down along the fingerboard to achieve higher notes with better projection. In this century, the technique of the left has been refined to the point of being able to interpret pieces as virtuosic as a violin could. The use of metal strings also greatly influenced the type of concerts that were going to be given, and the techniques used to achieve ever brighter sounds.

It is in this century when technique is finally considered as the fundamental basis for the interpretation, not only of the cello, but in general of all the instruments, and it forms an essential part of the study of the instrument, and its teaching begins to be standardize in all the conservatories of the world.

Pau Casals was not only one of the great cellists in history, but he managed to equate the violin and the cello as solo instruments. Thanks to his technical work, the possibilities of the cello increased considerably. He stressed above all the importance of nuances in the overall musicality of the work. His rediscovery of Bach's 6 Suites for Solo Cello, and his reinterpretation of them, laid the foundation for a new generation of cellists.

Eisenberg, a disciple of Casals, was another of the last great cello theorists. His great contribution was his concepts about anticipation in interpretation, like the moment you play a note, your hand has to be preparing for the next one.

Performance Techniques

For a good interpretation of the cello it is necessary to have a control of the technique of those most relevant aspects of this instrument. The most active members of the body when playing the cello are the left hand and the right arm, which are the ones that modify and create the sound, which is why special attention must be paid to them when studying the technique of this instrument.

Position technique

Violonchelista Vedran Smailović played in the ruins of the Sarajevo National Library in 1992. Photo of Mikhail Evstafiev.

The correct position of the cello is held between the performer's knees, while he is in a seated position. The distance or height that it has to have, adjustable with the mobile spike, depends on the physical characteristics of the performer himself and personal tastes. Apart from the knees, it has a third point of support on the chest, about 15 cm from the top of the sternum, but this also varies between cellists.

The neck must pass through the left of the musician's neck, and the lower peg on the left side seen from the front, the one corresponding to the note do, be approximately at the height of the left ear. Also, the entire body of the cello has to be slightly rotated to the right. The cellist's shoulders should be relaxed and at the same height, and the back should be straight. The most advisable thing is that he does not sit leaning against the back of the chair, but sits on the edge.

The notes are emitted by pressing the fingers of the left hand against the strings and the neck while the bow produces the vibration of that string, or this vibration is produced in another way, for example to pizzicato. What produces this pressure on the strings is that their length is shortened, producing sharper sounds the shorter it is. The left thumb is placed on the back of the neck, and the other four on the front, forming a kind of C with the hand. In higher positions (that is, closer to the bridge), the thumb position is used, in which the thumb sits at the front of the fingerboard along with the rest of the fingers. fingers.

The bow is held in the right hand, taking it by the head. The right thumb is placed on the back of the head, slightly tucking it between the two parts of the walnut, and the rest of the fingers are placed on its front part. Above all, the ones that are most important are the index and the little finger, to hold it and to direct it.

Left hand technique

For a good execution of the left hand, it is necessary to start with a good placement of the left arm and forearm. To play in low positions (at the top of the neck) the elbow must be kept away from the trunk, forming the arm at an angle close to 45° with the body. The arm and forearm must be flexed enough for the hand to reach the desired area. In this area of the neck, the forearm should be placed perpendicular to the strings. If you want to play in high positions (lower neck area), you must keep your elbow elevated so that your arm does not collide with the soundboard and move your shoulders slightly forward to facilitate arm extension.

Once the arm is well positioned, pay attention to the wrist, which must be positioned in such a way that the forearm and hand describe a straight line, and at all times it must be relaxed so that it does not cause pain after a long period of playing. Once the doll is placed, you have to pay attention to the placement of the hand. As previously stated, the hand should be placed in the shape of a C, with the thumb on the back of the neck and the other four fingers on top. These must reach the fingerboard perpendicularly, and the thumb must be at the height of the middle finger (at the top of the neck). To make different sounds it is necessary to press the strings with your fingers and the closer to the bridge you press, the higher the sound will be.

Positions

When playing on a single string and you want to get higher-pitched sounds, it is necessary to press your fingers closer to the bridge, to do this you have to place your hand in different places on the neck, higher up (or lower down if you want to get higher pitched sounds). These different places where the hand is placed along the neck are called positions and each of these is known by an ordinal number. Before going into the analysis of each position, we must differentiate between two types of positions: the low positions, which are the ones that are located furthest from the bridge and in which the thumb is placed on the back of the neck, and the high positions., which are the ones closest to the bridge and in them the thumb is placed on the string, perpendicular to it and applying pressure.

The bottom positions are first, second, third, and fourth. The most comfortable and easiest of all that there is is the first position, the closest to the pins and the furthest from the bridge, that is, the lowest. In this position, the index finger is pressed in just the right place to get the note that forms an interval of a major second with the proper note of the string on which it is played. For example, if you play on the string a, the index pressed should get a b. The second position is obtained by raising each of the fingers one major second interval, the hand being a little closer to the bridge and in a higher position in which higher-pitched sounds will be achieved. The third position is obtained by raising all the fingers one major second interval with respect to the second position, bringing the thumb closer to the sound box. Fourth position is obtained by raising all fingers up an interval of a major second with respect to third position, it is the highest position in which the thumb can be kept on the back of the neck, since in this position the thumb already collides with the sound box. Apart from these four positions, there is a fifth that is often avoided and is called half position. This is really the lowest of all, that is, the furthest from the bridge. In it, the pressed index creates a note half a tone higher than the proper note of the string.

The high positions are called thumb, thumb, or capo positions. In these positions, the thumb is placed on the strings, perpendicular to and pressing down on the strings, and functions as a fifth finger. Each position of these is obtained by going up one interval of a major second with respect to the previous one. The lowest position of these is fifth, and the highest is the one closest to the bridge, although you can't go as high as you want since from a certain point on the neck the sound worsens significantly. These positions are more uncomfortable than the low ones and therefore more difficult. The higher the position, the fingers have to be placed closer together for physical reasons, so in the thumb positions it is more difficult to tune.

Position change

In all the works it is necessary to have the hand placed in different positions and for this it is necessary to make changes of position. These changes turn out to be fire tests to get a good tuning. To make a good change of position, it is necessary to make a preview, that is, before moving the hand prepare the movement to not lose the rhythm of the work. During hand scrolling, fingers should not lose contact with the rope, but they should never press it. Position changes should be quick and accurate to avoid losing rhythm or tuning, so it is a very important aspect in the study of a work.

Additional Left Hand Techniques

Harmonic.

Harmonics

The harmonics are sounds that occur at roaring (and not pressing) the rope with a finger. These sounds reflect physical properties of the rope note and depending on where it is twisted sounds different sounds. The roce in the middle of the rope produces the same note of the rope only a higher octave, and so, the roce in a third, in a fourth and in a fifth of the length of the rope produce representative sounds of the note of the rope, such as the fifth, the third and the eighth. This sound is a very used expressive resource at a time when little sound intensity is required, although it cannot be made vibrate in the harmonics, which makes it lose expressivity. One advantage of the harmonics is that it is not necessary a precise position of the finger because there is a small margin along the rope in which the desired harmonic sounds. It is represented on the score with a small circle or zero on the note.

Vibrato

The vibrate is the undulating and spontaneous movement of the left hand that is made in order to give expressiveness to the note that is being represented. This is a movement that begins on the forearm, which spreads through the hand and ends on the finger that presses the rope, so the sound that you hear gives an undulating sensation. The vibrate can be faster or slower depending on the time of the work, but it must always be a natural movement. When this movement is internalized in the cellist technique it is difficult not to do so, but to keep the hand and the forearm relaxed during its execution is, at times, subject to study.

Glissando.

Glissando

The glissando is a highly used expressive resource in the interpretation of hardened string instruments. This resource occurs with a relatively slow position change in which a finger stays pressed while the bow is passed, so that all existing intermediate notes between the initial and the end are touched. The sound that occurs with the glissando is that of a note that goes up or down progressively. This resource is used slightly in slow and expressive position changes, and fully in works that indicate it, especially Romanticism and later times. Although on many occasions it is not explicitly indicated in the work, in others it is represented with a rolling line that unites the initial note and the final note.

Right hand technique

The right hand technique appears to be easier than the left hand technique, but this is completely false. In the theory of the right hand, greater emphasis must be placed on how to move the right arm, since it is in charge of producing the sound and the movement of the bow depends on it.

To produce an optimal sound, it is necessary to bow the strings, moving from right to left, between the bridge and the neck. The bow should be perpendicular to the strings and should be positioned so that all the mane comes into contact with the strings. When the bow is moved by the heel (the area of the bow closest to the hand), the entire arm must move in block, taking care that the bow always remains perpendicular to the neck and strings.

When you move the bow from the point of the bow (the part of the bow furthest from the hand) you have to stretch the forearm, leaving the part before the elbow still. In this way the bow does not twist and the sound is not lost. As the bow approaches the point, the right hand is further away from the body, and to prevent the bow from turning (the arm would function as a compass) the wrist has to turn to its left, keeping the hand perpendicular to the bow. to the strings

This movement of the wrist is known as pronation, which is very important for making loud sounds when playing on the point of the bow. The right wrist should always be kept relaxed, even in moments of loud noise. To generally get a louder sound, all you have to do is keep more weight on your arm on the bow, and not tense your wrist as it will cause pain and stiffness. Regarding the way to hold the bow, it has already been discussed in the Position technique section.

Arch up and arch down

Arc up.

Arc down.

These are the names given to the two possible horizontal movements of the arc, from right to left, or from left to right. The arc up is the global displacement of the arc to the left along the chord. This can be done from any part of the arch, and normally ends at the heel, although it is also variable. The bow down is the global displacement of the bow on the chord to the right. This one, like the previous one, can start from anywhere on the arch, either the heel or another point.

These two possible movements are symbolized on the staff with a "v" over the note (in the case of the up bow), and with a bracket (in the case of the down bow). They are important not only so that in groups where there are several stringed instruments or several cellos they move the bow at the same time, to make it more aesthetic, but also because the character and expression given to a work with one movement or another of arc is different.

In general, the bow down is a more natural movement, so it tends to be louder and more aggressive, and it tends to coincide with the strong parts of the measure. Normally the work begins and ends with this arch for the same reason, although of course not always. However, the up bow produces less sonority, and is usually used for notes in weak parts of the measure, but it is also highly variable. Some passages can be more comfortable or more complex depending on whether you start playing bow up or down, especially fast passages or double strings, since the different bow strokes and different articulations change completely depending on whether one is used or the other.

Additional Right Hand Techniques and Articulations

Col legno

The ♪ (legno, of tin, wooden rod) is an expressive technique of the rugged string instruments in which the ropes are struck with the wooden rod of the arch. To do this, it is necessary to hold the bow in such a way that the wood can affect the ropes, that is, you have to take the bow of the reverse. The sound that occurs when hitting the rope is very smooth and rhythmic. This technique is used in contemporary and avant-garde works.

Détache

Détaché means in French loose or separated. This term is used to designate the type of most elementary arch movement, in which every time it moves, a single note is issued. If you change the note, you have to stop the bow movement, and change your direction to emit the next sound. The pause between the two arch movements has to be the shorter the better, and not stop the general movement of the work.

Arpeggio.

Double strings

In the technique of the double strings the arch is rubbed on two strings simultaneously in order to make polyphony and create chords. Make the bow through two strings at once when it touches piano (with little sound intensity) is complicated since you have to maintain an arch address with very little margin of error. This resource is widely used in the final chords present in baroque and classical works, and in sections where it is explicitly requested. Sometimes they have to play chords on more than two strings. When it is not possible to interpret them simultaneously because the strings are in different planes, they are touched by arpegiated, that is, all the notes of the chord are touched very followed, but not exactly at the same time.

Legato.

Law

In the legato or tied different notes are interpreted while moving the bow in one sense, that is, touching different notes in one arch. With this technique you get a very continuous sound and, as its name indicates, linked. The legato is frequently used in works with a melodic and unrithmic character, and in fragments in piano (with little sound intensity), though not always so. In the score, the legato is represented by placing an arch above (or below) of all the notes that you want to represent in a single arch.

Pizzicato

The pizzicato is a musical technique of the rugged string instruments that consists of producing sound without using the arch, but pinching the strings with a finger of the right hand, usually the index or thumb. The sound produced is very rhythmic and chopped, very similar to that of the guitar. The pizzicato is present in fragments in which you want to get a different sonority and sometimes when the cello plays the accompanying role in an instrumental group.

Spiccato.

Spiccato

The spiccato is a musical technique in which the bow moves through the rope making small jumps on this one. The right hand should leave some freedom to the arch so that it moves in a spontaneous way, but always maintaining a basic control over it because if it is left completely free, the control of rhythm and sound intensity would be lost. The sound that occurs with the spiccato is chopped and cropped, creating short lasting notes separated from the rest by a small silence. It can be considered as the opposite of legato. This type of arc stroke is typical in almost every era of music.

Staccato

The staccato is a musical technique in which the notes are played in a shorter, uniform and intense way than in normal conditions. To achieve this effect it is necessary to press the rope in a uniform way throughout the note leaving the minimum silence between them. The staccato is indicated with a rayite that is placed above the note in question. This resource is used in fragments in which you want to give a special sound depth.

Sul tasto

Sul tasto means in Italian ‘on the mast’ or ‘on the finger’. It consists of moving the arch as far away as possible from the bridge, above the fragment of the ropes that is above the bottom of the fingerboard. In this way, you get a very smooth sound with less projection than in normal conditions. Sometimes the use of this technique is indicated in the score, but most of the time not, since it is a technique used to obtain different dynamics, especially piano or pianissimo.

Sul ponticello

Sul ponticello (pronounced) sul pontichél-lo) means in Italian ‘on the bridge’. In this technique, the arch is moved as close as possible to the bridge, thus producing a very metallic sound with harmonics, it is a very characteristic sound. It has been used for different works, both orchestral and cello soloist, but only in contemporary works, and is always indicated in the score if this technique is to be used. Highlights in works for Béla Bartók cello.

Famous Cellos

• The King (1572)
• Barjansky (1690)
• Lord Aylesford (1696), played for 15 years by János Starker.
• Decorated (1696), belonging to the Stradivarius Palatinos, preserved at the Royal Palace of Madrid.
• Servais Stradivarius (1701), so called because Adrien François Servais used it.
• Under Palatine (1701), belonging to the Stradivarius Palatinos, preserved at the Royal Palace of Madrid.
• Paganini-Condessa de Stanlein (1707)
• Duport (1711), belonged to Mstislav Rostropóvich.
• Davidov (2008), so called because it belonged to Karl Davidov, it was later owned by Jacqueline du Pré, and currently used by Yo-Yo Ma.
• Batta (1714)
• Piatti (1720), belongs to Carlos Prieto.
• Marquis de Corberon; ex-Loeb (1726) on loan to Steven Isserlis.
• Romberg (1728)
• De Munk (1730)
• Matteo Gofriller (1733), belonged to Pau Casals, currently used by Amit Peled.
• Balerion (2001)
• Paganini-Ladenburg (Cuarteto Paganini) (1736), usually left to Clive Greensmith.