Catiline

Cicerón speaks against Catilinaby the Italian painter Cesare Maccari.

Lucius Sergius Catilina  (108-62 BC) was a prominent Roman politician of the late-Republican era, belonging to the popular faction. Catilina has gone down in history for being the protagonist of the so-called Catilina conspiracy, a conspiracy that, according to the accusations made by Marco Tulio Cicero, would have consisted of destroying the Republic.

Catiline is one of the most enigmatic figures in Roman history; she debased and blurred by chroniclers and classical historians. The two main sources of information about Catilina are precisely the most hostile to the character. Cicero, his greatest political enemy, spared no denunciation against him, especially in his speeches called Catilinarias , while Sallust attributed some of the vilest crimes to him in his moralistic monograph De coniuratione Catilinae . Even so, many of the worst accusations against him, such as that he made human sacrifices, were most likely fabrications. Despite this, Catiline's conspiracy remains one of the most famous and turbulent events of the last decades of the Roman Republic.

Family environment

Catiline was born in 108 B.C. C. (or possibly shortly before), within the Sergia gens, a family of the noblest patrician origin, although with little social and economic fortune. Despite his family's consular heritage, the last Sergio to become consul was Cayo Sergio Fidenate, in 380 BC. C.

We don't know much about his father, although, judging by Cicero's expression (in patris egestate), he must have had little financial means and remained aloof from politics. His great-grandfather, Marco Sergio Silo, on the other hand, distinguished himself by participating in almost all the battles of the Second Punic War.

Catilina would try to restore her family's political heritage along with their former economic situation.

Military career

A capable commander, Catilina had a meritorious military career. He began as tribune or prefect of the auxiliary troops during the Social War together with Pompey and Quintus Tullius Cicero, under the orders of the consul Gnaeus Pompeyo Strabo in 89 BC. c.

He also supported Sulla in the civil war of 84 and 81 B.C. C. During Cinna's government, Catilina did not play a fundamental role, although he remained in a secure political situation. When Sulla returned to Italy, Catilina embraced his cause, serving in his army as quaestor; Similarly, he was a prominent member of the oligarchy during the Silan dictatorship, benefiting from the proscriptions. Plutarch attributes to him the murder of several nobles, as well as his own brother and his brother-in-law, the knight Quinto Cecilio. Another action that is also attributed to him was the death of Marco Mario Gratidiano, nephew of Gaius Mario, whose head would have walked through the streets of Rome and carried a grateful Sulla.

In the early 70s B.C. C. he served abroad, possibly with Publio Servilio Vatia Isáurico, in Cilicia. In the year 73 a. C. he was put on trial for adultery with the vestal virgin Fabia, although Quintus Lutacio Cátulo, main leader of the optimates, testified in his favor and Catilina was exonerated.

In 68 B.C. C. he was praetor, obtaining the government of the province of Africa as propretor for the next two years. Once back in Rome, in 66 B.C. C., he presented himself as a candidate for the consular elections, the last step of the cursus honorum . However, the consul Lucio Volacacio Tulo prevented him from being a candidate for formal reasons. A little later, a delegation from the province of Africa arrived and denounced Catilina in the Senate for abuse of power while he was serving as governor. Catiline was brought to trial again in 65 BC. C., at which time he received the support of many of the most distinguished men in Rome, including many of the consulars. Even one of the consuls of that year, Lucius Manlius Torquatus, showed his support for Catilina. Cicero also considered defending Catilina in court. Again, Catilina would be exonerated. However, his acquittal would not be enough for the voters to erase from him all suspicion of his alleged crimes.

Catiline's first conspiracy

In all probability, Catilina was not involved in what would be called Catilina's first conspiracy. However, many historical sources implicate him in it. In addition, it does not seem to happen only in one source, but this implication occurs in all sources, which despite everything, is estimated to be nothing more than the reproduction of a series of rumours. Much of this information pertains to Cicero's speeches In toga candida, which he made during his electoral campaign in 64 BC. c.

The oligarchy decided to withdraw its support for Catiline for further candidacies, and thus being forced to go over to the opposition, he was protected by Crassus. The consul candidates Publio Antonio Peto and Publio Cornelio Sila (Sila's nephew) had to resign from the consulate accused of massive bribery. In this way, the other two main candidates, Lucio Manlio Torcuato and Lucio Aurelio Cota would be the consuls of the year 65 BC. Supposedly Catilina, offended by not being allowed access to the consulate, conspired together with Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso and the previous candidates for consuls to organize the killing of many of the senators and the new consuls on the same day that they took possession of their seats. charges. Later, they would set themselves up as consuls and Piso would be sent to Hispania to organize his provinces.

It is not entirely clear who participated in this conspiracy, which failed (like a second attempt a month later). Catiline acted, according to all indications, as an agent of Crassus so that the latter, had the plot succeeded, would have been named dictator, with Julius Caesar as his lieutenant.

Later, in 62 B.C. C., Cicero defended Publio Sulla in court after being accused of belonging to the recent conspiracy. In the end, Sulla was exonerated and Cicero received an important credit, which he invested in a new house.

Transition Years

During the year 64 B.C. C., Catilina was officially accepted as a candidate for the consular elections of the year 63 a. C. He appeared with Cayo Antonio Híbrida, who was suspected of being one of the conspirators. Despite this, Catilina was defeated by Cicero and Híbrida in the elections, mainly because the Roman aristocracy feared Catilina and his economic plans. Catiline promoted the demands of the common people along with his economic policy of tabulae novae, the complete cancellation of debts.

That same year, Catiline had been put on trial again, this time for his role in the repression of Sulla. At the behest of quaestor Cato the Younger, all the men who had taken advantage of the repression were brought to trial. Catilina was accused of murdering Marco Mario Gratidiano, and for carrying his head through the streets of Rome. Others accused him of having murdered many other notable men in the city. The most outrageous of the accusations claimed that he had murdered his own brother-in-law and had subsequently ordered Sulla's banishment to make his death a legitimate act. Despite all this, Catilina was again exonerated, although some conjecture that this exculpation was due to the influence of Julius Caesar, who presided over the court.

Catilina again chose to opt for the consulate. In the elections of the year 62 a. C., Catilina was defeated again, this time by Décimo Junio Silano and Lucio Licinio Murena, which definitely broke his political ambitions. The only possibility of obtaining the consulate was already through illegitimate means: conspiracy or revolution.

Catiline's second conspiracy

Deprived of his political support, Catilina drifted towards the most exacerbated populism, and began to recruit a large group of men from the senatorial and equestrian classes, dissatisfied with the policies of the Senate and Pompey as well as with the economic situation existing at that time. Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, the most influential conspirator after Catiline, had obtained the rank of consul in 71 BC. C., but he was expelled from the Senate by the censors during the political purges of the following year. Autronius was also complicit in the conspiracy, having been expelled from the Roman government.

Promoting his policy of debt forgiveness, Catilina rallied many poor people under his banner, along with many of Sulla's veterans. He sent Gaius Manlius, a centurion from Sulla's old army, to lead the conspiracy in Etruria, where he managed to raise an army. He also sent other men to take important positions throughout the Italian Peninsula, and started a small slave revolt in Capua. While the unrest of the population was felt by the Roman fields, Catilina made the final preparations for the conspiracy in Rome. The action was to begin simultaneously in various parts of Italy, especially in Etruria, where, as Lepidus's rebellion revealed, there was particular discontent among the population and veterans. His plans included burning and killing senators, after which he would join the army assembled by Manlius. The revolution—always according to the initial plans—would finally reach the city of Rome, where the promise of a social program would sustain Catilina as dictator or consul. To carry out these plans, Gaius Cornelius and Lucius Vargunteio should assassinate Cicero at dawn on November 7, 63 BC. c.

Although popular politicians such as Crassus and Caesar were aware of the plot, it seems most likely that they stayed away from it, considering the plans too radical or difficult to carry out. Cicero was, however, aware of what was up when Quintus Curio, one of the senators, alerted him to the danger through his lover Fulvia, which made him one of his informants. In this way, Cicero was able to escape certain death.

Shortly thereafter, Cicero would denounce Catilina before the senate in the first of the Catilinarias speeches. One of his most famous phrases is from that moment: "Quousque tandem, Catilina, abutere patientia nostra?" (How long will you abuse our patience, Catilina?). It is said that Catilina reacted violently, assuring that if he burned, it would be in the midst of general destruction. Immediately after this, he left in the direction of his house, while the Senate authorized Cicero to make use of the senatus consultum ultimum . It was October 22, 63 B.C. C. That night, Catilina fled from Rome under the pretext that he was going into voluntary exile in Masilia. However, he headed towards Manlius's camp in Etruria.

While Catilina prepared her army, the conspirators continued with their plans. Just then two ambassadors belonging to the Gallic tribe of the Allobroges were in Rome. So it occurred to Lentullus to try to win them over to his cause. The idea was that, when the revolution broke out, they would cross the Alps with their cavalry and join the rebels. To win his favor, Lentulus used the services of Publius Umbrenos, a well-known figure among the Gauls for having assiduously done business in his country, and Publius Gabinius Capiton, a conspiratorial leader of the equestrian class. Umbreno told the Allobroges ambassadors the entire plot, including names, dates, plans, and locations. In order to convince them, he told them the well-known story, according to which the omens indicated that Lentulus was going to be the third Cornelius to rule Rome. Thus the conspiracy was revealed.

The delegation quickly took advantage of this opportunity and informed Cicero, who instructed the delegates to gain tangible profit from the conspiracy. Five of the conspiring leaders wrote letters to the Allobroges for the delegates to show their people that there was hope in this conspiracy, but these letters were intercepted on their way to Gaul at the Milvian bridge. Then Cicero read these incriminating letters in the Senate. The senatorial session on December 5 was decisive: in it Cato requested the death penalty for the conspirators, which Cicero would apply immediately despite the brilliant defense made by Julius Caesar. The five conspirators were executed without trial in the Tuliano prison. In this way the conspiracy in Rome ended.

Having been informed of the disaster in Rome, Catilina (declared hostis on November 15) and his under-equipped army marched towards Gaul, then turned towards Rome in many times, in a vain attempt to avoid combat. Inevitably, Catiline was forced to fight, so he chose to engage Hybrida's army near Pistoria (present-day Pistoia), hoping Antony would lose the battle and discourage the rest of the armies. Catilina himself fought bravely in the battle, and once it was found that there was no hope of victory, he rushed into the bulk of the enemy. In the body count, all of Catilina's soldiers were found with frontal wounds, and Catilina's own corpse was found ahead of his own lines. His head was cut off and it was taken to Rome, as public proof that the conspirator was dead.

Portrait of Catiline

As Salustio said:

Lucio Catilina (...) was of great strength of soul and body, but of a bad and depraved character. From adolescence, civil wars, massacres, abductions, civil discords were welcome, and their youth were occupied. His body was able to endure privations, the cold, the insomnia beyond what was credible to anyone. His spirit was reckless, ardent, attentive, a simulator and a disguiser of what appealed to him, avoid of the alien, a wasteful of his own, a deafness in passions; much his eloquence, his diminished knowledge. His insatiable spirit always desired unmeasured, unbelievable, out of reach. This man, after the dictatorship of Sila, had been assaulted by an irrepressible desire to become the owner of the state and had no scruples about the means with which he would achieve it in order to obtain power. His ferocious spirit was agitated more and more every day by the decline of his estate and by the conscience of his crimes, increased one and the other with those arts that I have previously pointed out. They also incited the corrupted customs of the city to be lost by two evil and opposite evils: debauchery and greed. Since the circumstance has brought to a halt the customs of the city, the matter itself seems to advise us to go back and briefly explain the institutions of the ancestors in peace and war, how they ruled the Republic and how great they left it so that little by little it becomes the most beautiful and excellent in the worst and most infamous.

The Conjuration of Catilin, V

... his impure spirit, hostile to the gods and to men, could not be reassured either in the candle or in the rest, to such extent the remorse corroded his outstanding soul. Thus, his color was pale, his repulsive gaze, his walking a few times fast and other parsimonious; in his appearance and in his face the madness was unequivocally evident.

The Conjuration of Catilin, X