Canis lupus

The wolf (Canis lupus) is a species of placental mammal of the order of carnivores. The naturalist Carlos Linnaeus, in the tenth edition of his work Systema naturæ, published in 1758, classified the domestic dog as a different species (Canis familiaris); however, today they are considered a member of the same species based on DNA sequencing and other genetic studies. The first fossil record dates back to 800,000 years ago. Wolves are native to North America and Eurasia, where once they were distributed and abundant. Today, they only inhabit a very limited portion of what was once their territory.

Although there are still decent numbers of wolves in the continental United States of America and a few other regions, the species is listed as endangered or threatened. Wolves are hunted in many parts of the world for the threat they pose to livestock, as well as for sport.

Etymology

Wolves usually have the fur of several colors mixed.

The term "wolf" It derives from the Latin lupus, with the same meaning. In zoology it is also used to define a species of twelve-centimeter-long teleost fish, a two-meter-long selagian fish, for the seal-like mammal, if the adjective "marine" is added, and for the lynx, if the adjective "cerval" is added. It also designates a machine used in the spinning mill for the work of cotton and as a synonym for drunkenness (in disuse). In Peru it is used as a synonym for astute.

There is talk of a "sea lion" to refer to an experienced sailor whereas, when a group of people is said to be "wolves of a litter", what it really means is that they share common interests that lead them to maintain a cordial relationship. On the other hand, in Latin the term lupa 'she-wolf' was used to describe harlots. In fact, according to Tito Livio, it is possible that the story of the wolf Luperca was used to cover up a prostitute.

Paleontology

Mandibular Fragment Canis lupus mosbachensis, wolf of the average European Pleistocene. Cave of L'Aragó, Tautavel, France.

Miacis is a representative of a group of primitive carnivores that were the ancestors of modern carnivores (order Carnivora), but only the species Miacis cognitus is a true carnivore Thus, Miacis can be considered the precursor genus of carnivorous mammals to modern caniforms. The common ancestor of miacids and viverravids (the basal carnivorous precursors of feliforms) is thought to have lived during the late Late Cretaceous.

The separation between the branch of modern carnivores and the rest of the miácidos, including Miacis, took place in the middle of the Eocene, with the appearance of groups such as the amphinics, which could be the precursors of modern bears; or the hesperoquinines, which represent the first group of canids to appear after this separation. Hesperocyon lived between twenty-six and thirty-eight million years ago and is considered to be the most distant ancestor of today's dog. This evolutionary line later gave rise to the species Eucyon davisi about ten million years ago and is believed to have been the species that passed through the Bering Strait into Eurasia and Africa, where many modern canids appeared.

Anatomy

Wolf skeleton.

Wolf size and weight varies considerably around the world, and tends to increase proportionally with latitude, as predicted by Bergmann's rule. In general terms, the height varies between 60 and 90 cm to the shoulder, and they have a weight between 32 and 64 kg. Specimens weighing more than 77 kg have reportedly been found in Alaska and Canada; (unconfirmed) the heaviest wild wolf, hunted in Alaska in 1939, weighed 80 kg. There are a few unconfirmed cases of wolves being hunted in northeastern Russia that reached 100 kg. The smallest wolves are the sub-species of Arabian wolves, their females can weigh about 10 kg at maturity. Females in a given population weigh about 20% less than males. Wolves can measure 1.3 to 2 m from snout to the tip of the tail, which is about a quarter of their total body length..

Wolves possess traits ideal for long-distance travel. Its narrow chest and powerful back and legs facilitate efficient locomotion. They are capable of covering several kilometers trotting at a speed of 10 km/h, being able to reach top speeds of 65 km/h in a chase. While running at high speed they can cover five meters per jump. Wolves' paws are adapted to easily walk over a wide variety of terrain, especially snow and soft earth: They have a small webbing between each toe, allowing them to move through the snow more easily than their prey. Wolves are digitigrade, and have longer hind legs and a vestigial fifth toe, only present on the forelegs, their claws being dark/black in color and non-retractile. Erect hairs and blunt claws enhance grip on slippery surfaces, and special blood vessels prevent cooling of the foot pads. Glands help mark and inform conspecifics of their whereabouts as they move across vast expanses.

Greater size and length of legs, yellow eyes, and larger teeth distinguish adult wolves from other canids, particularly dogs. There is a scent gland present at the base of the wolves' tail, which gives each individual a unique aromatic trace, which helps them to identify each other.

Denture

Wolves and most large dogs share identical teeth; the upper jaw has six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and four molars, and the lower jaw has six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars.

The four upper premolars and the first lower molars make up the carnassial teeth, which are essential tools for cutting meat. The long canine teeth are also important, as they are adapted to hold and contain prey. Therefore, any injury to the jaw or teeth can be devastating to a wolf, leading to starvation or incapacitation.

Senses

Young wolf with yellow-brown eyes.

They can hunt both day and night thanks to their acute sense of smell and their nyctalope vision, in low light, since their eyes have a tapetum lucidum behind the retina. Their long, powerful snouts help distinguish them from coyotes and jackals, which have narrower snouts; and of the dogs that generally have them smaller. Wolves also differ in certain cranial dimensions, having a smaller orbital angle than, for example, dogs (53º for these and 45º for wolves), as well as a greater brain capacity, with the cranial vault being 20% larger.

Fur

Sometimes a wolf appears heavier than it really is, due to its voluminous fur, made up of two layers. The first layer is adapted to repel water and dirt. The second is a dense waterproof undercoat that insulates the wolf. This turns into a large head of hair in late spring or early summer. A wolf normally rubs against objects such as rocks and branches to encourage fur loss. The undercoat is usually gray regardless of the appearance of the outer coat. Wolves have distinct coats in winter and summer that alternate in spring and fall. Females tend to keep their winter coats beyond spring unlike males.

Coloration varies; it ranges from gray to gray-brown, through the canine spectrum of white, red, brown, and black. These colors tend to mix in many populations to form predominantly admixed individuals, although it is not uncommon for an individual or an entire population to be the same color, usually all black or all white. The color of the fur sometimes corresponds to the environment in which a population of wolves thrives; For example; all white wolves are much more common in snowy areas. As they grow, they acquire a greyish tint to their coats. It is commonly believed that the wolf's fur coloration serves as a camouflage mechanism. This is not entirely correct, as some scientists have shown that color mixing has more to do with emphasizing gestures, much like eye shadow or lipstick in humans.

At birth, pups tend to have darker fur and blue eyes that will turn yellow-gold or orange when they reach eight to sixteen weeks. Although extremely rare, it is possible for an adult to maintain blue eyes.

Ethology

Wolf watching his hole.

Wolves gestate for 60 to 63 days. The cubs, weighing a pound, are born blind, deaf and completely dependent. Four to six cubs are born per litter. The pups reside in the den and remain there until they are three weeks old. The burrow is usually on high ground near a water source, and has a "room" open at the end of a tunnel that can measure a few meters. During this time, the pups will become more independent, eventually beginning to explore the area closest to the burrow, before moving further away at five weeks.

After those first five weeks of life, the cubs begin to approach the den entrance and, after another two weeks, they will dare to wander away to begin their little explorations, looking for something edible.

Wolves often receive life lessons from their "sitter", who is chosen by the breeding female to continue their care and education after weaning, between four and six weeks of life. Depending on the wolf species, the pack may choose to raise the cubs or leave the job to the mother, allowing the breeding female to rededicate itself to running the pack. They start by eating regurgitated food and after two weeks, when their milk teeth come in, they will be weaned. During the first few weeks of her development, the mother remains with the litter all by herself, but eventually most litter members will contribute to the care of the pups in some way.

Lobezno.

Wolves are taught howling communication at a young age, about three to four weeks, receiving food and praise as rewards. Each cub learns to howl according to her range.

After two months the cubs, which begin to change their blackish tones to the colors of their final coat, will be moved to a safe place where they remain while most of the adults go hunting. One or two adults stay behind to ensure their safety. After a few weeks, the pups are allowed to join the adults if they can, and they will receive priority over any prey taken despite their low rank. At five months their final teeth come in and they begin to be called cubs. The cubs will be observers until eight months, when they are old enough to participate.

Wolves reach sexual maturity after two to three years, when many are forced to leave their birth packs and seek mates and their own territories. Wolves that reach maturity generally live six to eight years in in the wild, although in captivity they can live twice that age. High mortality rates generally give them a low life expectancy. The cubs die when food is scarce; They may also fall prey to predators such as brown bears or pumas, or, less frequently, black bears, coyotes, foxes, or other wolves.

The most significant causes of mortality for mature wolves are hunting, poaching, car accidents, and prey-inflicted injuries. Although adult wolves can occasionally be killed by other predators, wolves from rival packs are generally their most dangerous non-human enemies. A study of wolf mortality indicated that 14% to 65% of wolf deaths were due to other wolves. Wolves are susceptible to the same diseases that affect domestic dogs.

Eating habits

Wolves feed primarily on medium to large ungulates, including sheep, goats, chamois, pigs, wild boar, deer, antelope, reindeer, horse, elk, yak, muskoxen, and bison. Other prey includes marine mammals such as seals and stranded whales. Cannibalism among wolves has been documented in times of food scarcity. Lone wolves rely more on small animals that they can hunt by jumping on top of them and holding them with their paws. forelegs, although solitary individuals have been documented to hunt large game. Some herds in Alaska and western Canada have been seen feeding on salmon.

They also hunt rodents, birds, and other small animals. A single wolf will usually eat between 3.2 to 3.5 kg of food at one time, although they can eat 7 to 14 kg. in exceptional situations when food is scarce. The annual food requirement is around 1.5 tons of meat. They can survive long periods without eating. The extreme case is shown by a Russian record that states that a wolves survived seventeen days without food. After eating, wolves will ingest copious amounts of water to prevent uremic problems. A wolf's stomach can hold 7.5 L of water..

Obtaining food

A herd harassing a bison.

Wolves will avoid potential prey that doesn't fit what they experienced in their lives.

However, even when there is no shortage of food, wolves will explore alternative prey if they frequently interact and habituate each other. Wolf packs display less complex hunting strategies than other social carnivore species such as wolves. lions, although wolf pairs have shown strategic behavior when attacking large prey. When hunting large prey, they will typically attempt to hide as they approach a targeted animal. As a general rule, they will wait for the prey to graze, at which time it is distracted. They kill larger prey by lunging at the hindquarters and perineal area, causing exsanguination. Sometimes they attack the throat, severely damaging the jugular and trachea.

A single bite can cause a puncture 10 to 15 cm in length. Once the prey collapses, the wolves will open the abdominal cavity and begin to devour the animal, sometimes while the prey is still alive. Sometimes they will not pressure the prey but wait for it to die from its injuries. to begin feeding. Pack status is reinforced during feeding. The breeding pair usually eat first, beginning with the heart, liver, and lungs. Wolves of intermediate rank will prevent wolves of lower status from refraining from feeding until the dominant pair has finished. They eat the stomach, leaving the contents intact. Leg muscles are next with bones eaten last. Exceptions exist, some herds having been documented to show a preference for fat stores of prey over internal organs.

Although they generally target sick animals, there is little evidence to show that they are limited to that class of targets. Rather, the evidence asserts that wolves will focus on the most accessible and valid options, which, while assuming sick animals are potential prey, also includes young animals and pregnant females. In Nenetsia, wolves were observed to wolves selected pregnant domesticated reindeer over sick ones.

Wolves may relent if prey becomes overly combative. They are usually inefficient at hunting large prey, with success rates of 20%, which is caused, in part, by the large size and defensive capabilities of their prey.

On some occasions it has been observed how they hunt to have a surplus. One such example was documented by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources conservation officer, stating that during a spring snowstorm, two wolves killed twenty-one deer, consuming only two. Excess hunting occurs in the winter months when heavy snow impedes the movement of large prey. Sometimes they attack pregnant ungulates to feed on the fetus, leaving the mother intact. Occasionally they supplement their diet with vegetation. In some areas of the former Soviet Union, the damage that wolves had caused to watermelon plantations was documented.

Wolves are often blamed for a large number of attacks on livestock. While this can happen and there are previous studies indicating that wolves frequently prey on livestock, other recent studies show that Mongolian wolves have a predilection for hunting wild prey rather than foraging for livestock. The difference between these studies lies in the sampling. The samples were chosen from natural spaces adjacent to pastures where there was a high biodiversity of species where the wolf could choose. In this case, when the wolf has a choice, it shows a predilection for wild animals such as the Siberian roe deer because they are less dangerous to hunt than cattle.

Social behavior

A pack of Italian wolves at the Parc des Loups.

Wolves usually organize themselves into packs following a strict social hierarchy. This high level of social organization is believed to have had to do with hunting success. Recent theories suggest, however, that such organization is more related to reproductive success.

The pride is led by two individuals at the top of the social hierarchy: the breeding male and the breeding female. The breeding pair has great social freedom compared to the rest of the herd. Although they are not leaders in the human sense of the term, they help resolve any disputes within the pack, and have great control over resources, such as food, and most importantly, they keep the pack together, which has strong instincts. of companionship, the rest of the pack usually follows.

While most pairs are monogamous, exceptions exist. Lone wolves in search of other individuals can travel great distances. Scattered wolves should avoid other wolves' territories because they may harass or kill intruders.

Wolves in the Yellowstone National Park.

Playback

Normally, only the breeding pair can produce a litter of pups. Mating takes place between January and April; the higher the latitude, the longer the delay. In general, the aggressiveness of the breeding female towards subordinate females increases. The increased stress of the subordinates, together with the attitude and presence of the breeding female, is usually an inhibitory stimulus to prevent the other females from going into heat.

The reproductive instinct drives young wolves out of their birth packs, seeking mates and territories. Dispersal occurs at all times of the year, typically by wolves that have reached sexual maturity in the previous breeding season.

During the mating season, reproduction makes wolves very affectionate in anticipation of the female ovulation cycle. In general, the tension in the packs grows as each mature wolf is driven to mate.

When the alpha female is sexually receptive, which occurs once a year and lasts five to fourteen days, she and her mate will spend a great deal of time in isolation. Pheromones in the female's urine and the swelling of her vulva will inform the male of the female's situation. She is not receptive for the first few days of the estrous cycle, during which she will lose the lining of her uterus. The male penis has inside a bone formation known as the penile bone or crozier, which has the function of facilitating the initial penetration in the female, in addition to maintaining rigidity prior to full erection.

The male will mount the female firmly from behind. After achieving coitus, the two form copulation once the bulbus glandis, an erectile tissue of the male located near the base of the penis, expands and the muscles of the female's vagina tighten. Ejaculation is induced by the thrusting of the male's pelvis and the undulation of the female's cervix. The two will be physically attached for between ten and thirty minutes, during which the male will ejaculate multiple times. After the initial ejaculation, the male raises his legs above the female, facing opposite directions. It is believed to be a defensive measure as one guards the other's back. The mating ritual is repeated many times throughout the female's brief ovulation period.

Territorial behavior

A wolf sniffing his territory.

Wolves are territorial animals. Studies have shown that the average size of a herd's territory is around 200 km². Herds travel constantly in search of prey, covering around 9% of their territory per day, 25 km/day or so. Their core territory is on average about 35 km², where they spend 50% of the time. Prey density tends to be much higher in adjacent territories. Despite such abundance, wolves tend to avoid hunting on the fringes of their territory, unless unavoidable, due to tense encounters with other neighboring packs. Established packs rarely accept strangers within their territories. A study of wolf mortality in Minnesota and Denali National Park and Preserve concluded that between 14 and 65% of wolf deaths were caused by predation by other wolves. In fact, 91% of wolf deaths deaths occurred within 3.2 km of the borders, between neighboring territories.

Communication across these borders is achieved through territory marking and howling. Howling is the primary means in wolf populations as it communicates the location of core territory, as well as enforcing an independent territory barrier around the pack. This is the means of avoiding encounters with neighboring packs near territorial borders. Lone wolves rarely respond to howling.

Wolves, like other canines, mark territory to lay a claim on anything from territory to fresh prey. Breeding wolves mark territory more frequently; males do it more than females. Urine is what they use the most to mark it. Breeding males and females urinate objects with one paw raised while other members crouch to enforce range and territory. They also use markers to identify food and to claim kills on behalf of the pack. Stool markings are used for the same purposes as urine, serving as a more visual warning. These markings are particularly useful for locating, preventing the pack from going over the same terrain too much and also allowing each wolf to be aware of the whereabouts of his pack. Above all, the markings are used to inform other wolves and other packs that a certain territory is occupied, and that they should therefore proceed with caution.

Wolves have glands all over their bodies, including the base of the tail, between the legs, the eyes, the genitals, and the skin. The pheromones secreted by these glands identify each wolf. A dominant wolf will rub its body against subordinate wolves to mark such wolves as members of a particular pack. Wolves' heavy reliance on scent cues shows their keen nose. They can detect virtually every scent, including marks, from great distances, and can distinguish between them as well or better than humans can distinguish other humans visually.

Communication

Body expression

Defensive expression.

Expression of fear.

Suspect.

Wolves can communicate visually in an impressive variety of expressions and modes, ranging from subtle signs or slight movements, to more obvious expressions such as showing complete submission by rolling onto their backs.

• Aggression: An aggressive wolf grunts and erects the fur. You can duck, ready to attack if necessary.
• Hunt: A wolf that is hunting is tense, and therefore the tail is horizontal and straight.
• Defense: A defensive wolf flatters his ears against the head.
• Domain: A dominant wolf remains rigid and high. The ears are erect and forward. This sample makes the wolf range worth to the rest of the herd. A dominant wolf can stare at a submissive one, mount on his shoulders or even climb his back legs.
• Angry: The ears of an angry wolf are erect, as well as their fur. Show the incisives. The wolf can also arch the back, attack or grunt.
• Happiness: As dogs do, a wolf can mingle the tail if it's jovial. The language can also stand out.
• Fear: A scared wolf tries to make your body look small and therefore less striking. The ears are flattened against the head, and the tail can be introduced between the legs, like a submissive wolf. He can shake or bark from fear, arching his back.
• Relaxation: The tail points down, and the wolf can sneak in emulating a sphinx. The lower the tail, the more relaxed it is.
• Submission (active): During active submission, lower the entire body, and cast the lips and ears back. Sometimes the snout is licked. Place the tail down, or half or completely between the legs, and with the muzzle usually points to the most dominant animal. It may have a partially arched back.
• Submission (passive): Passive submission is more intense than active. The wolf rolls upward exposing the throat vulnerable.
• Suspect: They narrow their eyes. The tail is straight, parallel to the ground.
• Tension: You can duck ready to jump.

Vocal expression

Wolf lulling.

Howling helps pack members stay in touch, allowing them to communicate effectively in dense forests or over great distances. Howling also helps call pack members to a specific location. It can also serve as a statement of territory, showing a dominant tendency in a human imitation of a "rival" wolf in an area the wolf considers its own. This behavior is stimulated when a pack has something to protect, such as fresh prey. Adjacent packs may respond to each other's howls, which can spell trouble for the smaller pack. Wolves therefore tend to howl carefully.

They also howl for community reasons. Some scientists speculate that they strengthen camaraderie and social bonding. During such choral sessions, wolves will howl in different voices and varying pitches, making it difficult to estimate the number of wolves involved. This confusion of number makes a rival pack cautious when choosing which action to take. For example, the confrontation can be disastrous if the rival pack underestimates the number of members of the other. Observations of packs suggest that howling occurs most often during the twilight hours, preceding the departure of adults to hunt and following their return.

Growling is the most effective aural warning display used by wolves. The wolf's growl has a clear and intense tone, similar to a bass, and is normally used to threaten opponents, although not necessarily to defend themselves. They can growl at other wolves while being aggressively dominant.

Wolves bark when they are nervous or when they want to warn other wolves of danger. They bark very discreetly, and generally will not bark loudly or repeatedly like dogs; instead, they use a rather intense tone and audible breathing to get the attention of other wolves. They also emit a kind of bark-grunt adding a short growl at the end of the bark. They do this, for the same reason that they bark. Puppies generally bark-growl more frequently than adults, using these vocalizations to cry for attention, care, or food.

A lesser-known sound is the joining sound. This barking sound is normally used as a sign of submission to the alpha male of the pack by other wolves. They may also whine, usually when submitting to other wolves. Cubs whine when they need reassurance from their parents or other wolves.

Subspecies

Wolves are still, despite the persecution they have been subjected to, the canids with the widest distribution. They inhabit all of Eurasia and North America, and have been introduced to Australia. Its habitat varies from the ice floes of Greenland to the deserts of Arabia or the jungles of India.

Such a vast distribution has allowed the appearance of different subspecies, which differ in the size, color and length of the fur or the proportions of the muzzle or ears. More than fifty wolf subspecies have been described, but no true consensus has been found in this regard, and the list has also been condensed, reducing the subspecies to between thirteen and fifteen. Modern deoxyribonucleic acid, anatomy, distribution, and migration classifications of various wolf colonies indicate that in 2005 there were some thirty-seven described subspecies including the singing dog, dingo, and dog (domestic subspecies of the wolf under the name < i>Canis familiaris).

Subspecies: From left to right and from top to bottom: common wolf, Iberian wolf, dog, wolf of the Mackenzie, dingo, Italian wolf, Indian wolf, Tibetan wolf and Arctic wolf.

• Canis familiais or Canis lupus familiarisDomestic dog.
• Canis lupus lupusEurope and Asia.
• Canis lupus albusNorth Russia.
• Canis lupus arctosCanadian Arctic.
• Canis lupus baileyiMexico and Southwest of the United States.
• Canis lupus manningiBaffin Island.
• Canis lupus orionNorthwest of Greenland.
• Canis lupus pambasileus, Alaska (Yukon and surrounding area).
• Canis lupus dingoSoutheast Asia and Australasia.
• Canis lupus arabsEgypt, Jordan, Arabian peninsula, Israel.
• Canis lupus italicusPenínsula Itálica
• Canis lupus crassodonVancouver Island.
• Canis lupus OccidentalisAlaska and Northwest Canada.
• Canis lupus pallipesMiddle East and Southwest Asia to India.
• Canis lupus signatus, Iberian peninsula.
• Canis lupus hallstromi, New Guinea

Historical and current status

Distribution of wolf subspecies.

Main current distribution areas of wolf subspecies

The wolf has been one of the world's most widely distributed mammals, living in the north at a latitude of 15° N in North America and 12° N in Eurasia. However, although it was Very abundant, the wolf inhabits a small part of its former range due to the destruction of its habitat and the encounters of wolves with humans that almost caused its extinction. This reduction has been very large in some areas of Europe, Asia, Mexico and the United States due to poisoning and deliberate persecution.

From 1982 to 1994, the wolf was listed as an endangered animal by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Changes in the protection of these animals, demographic shifts to urban areas, and land use have halted the decline in the wolf population. In addition, re-colonization and reintroduction programs have increased wolf populations in Europe. Western and western United States. Therefore, in 1996, the IUCN downgraded the wolf's risk status to Least Concern. The conservation status of wolves varies greatly, with some areas are protected and in others they are hunted for sport or exterminated as threats to livestock and domestic animals.

Habitat and current distribution

All of North America, Japan, Western Europe, Russia, and India had wolf populations in abundance. Despite this, of the aforementioned, only Russia continues to maintain a high number of copies.

In North America, they occupy northern Greenland, several Arctic islands, and much of Canada. The United States barely conserves fragmented populations and few individuals are kept in captivity in Mexico, since hunting and habitat destruction have reduced them to alarming numbers.

Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Nepal and Mongolia are countries with a large presence of wolf subspecies.

In Africa and the Middle East, they are conserved in fragments, but the African golden wolf (Canis anthus) is one of the most widely distributed.

Relationship with the human being

In many parts of the world the wolf is respected and revered, while in other parts it is hated. Sometimes they have been raised as domestic and working animals, although not without difficulty, due to the greater socialization problem they have with respect to dogs and their predatory instinct. For this reason, they need training and correct motivation, just like dogs. dogs.

Regarding the interaction between man and wolf in natural contexts, there are some documented cases of a positive relationship, based on man's knowledge and assumption of the hierarchical rules that govern the structure of the pack. Thus, the naturalist and ethologist Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente had several packs of wolves, of which he was the leader. In a time of staunch persecution of the wolf, Rodríguez de la Fuente studied its behavior trying to discover the reasons for the ancestral hatred of man towards this animal, discovering "the truth of the wolf", which he developed in numerous articles, achieving the preservation, by law, of the Iberian subspecies. After his death, the work for the preservation of the wolf continued.

Another case in Spain, although very different, is that of Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja, who in the fifties lived alone from the age of seven to nineteen in a remote area of the Sierra Morena where his only social reference was a pack of wolves. His story has been made into a film by Gerardo Olivares ( Entre lobos , 2010).

Attacks on humans

Wolves in the wild are usually shy and avoid contact with people, their reaction often depends on previous experiences with humans rather than their own natural behavior. When their habitat is extensive, with enough food Being occasionally hunted, the tendency is to avoid contact with people, even going so far as to abandon a hunt or a hunted piece if they notice a human approaching. In any case, there are a series of circumstances that cause wolves to be aggressive, such as provocation, habituation, rage, mistaken identification, the presence of puppies, the lack of seasonal prey or crossing with dogs. In general, the attacks are usually carried out by rabid wolves, but there are also known cases of attacks by healthy wolves. Historically and contrary to what is usually assumed, most attacks occur in the summer months, especially June and July, in which the victims are usually women and children. These attacks occur only during an interval of time, that is, they are temporary, implying that the human being is not a typical wolf prey, even so the wolves that have attacked humans may end up developing and maintaining predatory behavior towards humans until death.

Compared to other carnivorous predators, the frequency with which wolves have attacked people is quite low, and more so if we take into account their size and predatory potential, however, before the 20th century, it seems that the risk was undoubtedly much higher due to the presence of rabies. According to historical records, in France there were 3,699 people killed by wolves between 1580 and 1830, of whom almost half died of rabies. India attacks used to occur relatively frequently, even today, in Hazaribagh (Bihar) 122 children died and 100 were injured by wolf attacks between 1980 and 1986. North America has had far fewer cases than Europe; the biologist Mark McNay has compiled about eighty cases in Alaska and Canada; even so, several attacks in Canada are recent that resulted in the death of geology student Kenton Carnegie in Points North (Saskatchewan, Canada) who was apparently attacked by wolves during an afternoon walk through a nearby wooded area and partially devoured; It should be noted that in that same place there had been incidents of provocation and habituation with wolves days before.

Hunting

The hunting of the wolf of Alexandre-François Sport.

Wolves have often been hunted for sport, for their fur, to protect livestock, and in some rare cases to protect people. Historically, wolf hunting was a huge, capital and labor intensive operation, requiring thousands of nets, carts and sheds to store their pelts and dry them. The threat to livestock as well as to people were more than enough reasons for entire towns to enlist to hunt them. Some cultures, such as the Apache, hunted wolves as a rite of passage. They are generally difficult to hunt due to their evasive nature and their keen senses, being as difficult to hunt as the puma, although they do not defend themselves as aggressively as they or the grizzly bear.

Sport hunting is usually done in late fall and early winter when their pelts are prime, as heavy snow makes them easier to track. chicken-like taste.

While wolf hunting was originally approved in many countries, in some of them there is great controversy about it. Opponents view it as cruel, unnecessary, and based on misconceptions, while defenders argue that it is vital for cattle conservation.

Reintroduction

Wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone.

Wolf reintroduction involves the artificial restoration of a wolf population in areas where they had previously disappeared. Wolf reintroduction is only considered where páramo tracts are large enough and where prey is abundant to support a population. In Yellowstone National Park and Idaho, wolves have been successfully reintroduced, although there are opponents, due to predation on livestock or economic hardship caused by wolves.

These reintroductions were the culmination of more than two decades of research and debate. Ultimately, the economic problems of the local industry were solved when a fund was created to compensate ranchers for cattle lost to wolves. In March 1998, another reintroduction campaign began in the Apache-Apache National Forest. Sitgreaves, in Arizona. In 2006 the number of wild Mexican wolves in Arizona and New Mexico was estimated to be fifty, with the ultimate goal being a population of about one hundred individuals.

Mythology

Rumulus and Remo by Peter Paul Rubens (Rome).

Wolves have had a great influence in mythology for their esteemed aggressiveness towards humans. Although, on certain occasions, it has been praised, other times, it has been criticized quite severely. According to Greek mythology, it is one of the animals consecrated to Apollo, while Lycaon is turned into a wolf after trying to feed the god Zeus with the meat of his own son. In Roman mythology, Romulus and Remus were suckled by the wolf Luperca when King Amulius was chasing them to kill them.

In Norse mythology, the wolf Fenrir, son of Loki and Angrboda, devours Tyr's hand and plays an important role in Ragnarök by scraping the earth and sky with his snout. On the other hand, the wolf Sköll chases the goddess Sól every day while the wolf Hati chases the god Máni every night. There is also a wolf named Amarok in Inuit mythology and images of the werewolf and the spellbound wolf are known in European folklore.

Heraldry

Escudo del Valle de Salazar.

At the beginning of the spread of Christianity it was common to see wolves on the coats of arms of noble families. In heraldry one speaks of "fed wolf" when it carries a prey in its mouth while the "corked wolf" is the one that is represented without fur.

Literature

In the Bible, Jacob likens his son Benjamin to a wolf because his tribe became feisty. In said group of books, the fierceness of wolves is already discussed and bad people are compared to these animals. Here is a quote from the Old Testament:

And their horses have been faster than leopards, and they have been more fierce than night wolves.

Habakkuk 1:8

In the New Testament, wolves represent false prophets who want to corrupt the Christian congregation:

Beware of the false prophets who come to you in sheep's clothing, but inside are voracious wolves.

Matthew 7:15

Wolfprints.

Finally, in the book of Isaiah the wolves are turned into tame animals thanks to the action of the Kingdom of God:

And the wolf shall indeed dwell with the lamb for a while, and the leopard himself shall be cast with the goat, and the calf and the young lion and the beast well fed together; and a mere young man shall be a guide upon them.

Isaiah 11:6

Unscrupulous princes of Judah (Eze 22:27), false prophets (Mt 7:15), ruthless opponents of Christian ministry (Mt 10:16; Lu 10:3) and false teachers who would endanger the Christian congregation from within. —Ac 20:29, 30.

They are also common in Chinese, Kazakh (20 proverbs) and Russian (253 proverbs) proverbs. On the other hand, a certain Latin proverb says that "when the wolf learns psalms, he misses the lambs".

Aesop made a large number of fables around the wolf, such as The Wolf and the Lamb, The Dog and the Wolf and The Crane and the Wolf , like Félix María Samaniego and the Brothers Grimm, with Little Red Riding Hood, The Wolf and the Seven Little Kids or The Three Little Pigs with the image of the ferocious wolf. Also worth mentioning are the works The Gray Wolf, by George MacDonald, The True Story of the Three Little Pigs, by Jon Scieszka and Lane Smith, White Fang by Jack London and the story of the wolf "Patas Doradas" in Spilled Blood (Det blod som spillts) by the Swedish Åsa Larsson.

In the poem Los motivos del lobo (1913), Rubén Darío makes a metaphorical comparison between the pure nature of animals and the evil that existed in humans in the past. The poet was inspired by the story contained in chapter XXI of the Flowers of Saint Francis, which refers to how Francis of Assisi tamed the ferocious wolf of Gubbio by divine virtue.