Biotechnology

X-ray structure of RNA for the transfer of yeast.

Classification of biotechnology.

Biotechnology (from the Greek βίος bíos, 'life', τέχνη téchne, 'skill' and -λογία -logia , 'treatise, study, science') is a broad interdisciplinary branch of biological sciences that consists of any technological application that uses biological systems and living organisms or their derivatives for the creation or modification of products or processes for specific uses. These organisms may or may not be genetically modified, so Biotechnology should not be confused with Genetic Engineering. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines biotechnology as the «application of principles of mathematics and engineering for treatment of organic and inorganic materials by biological systems to produce goods and services.”^{[citation needed]} Its bases are biology, engineering, physics, chemistry, and biomedicine; and the field of this science has a great impact on pharmacology, medicine, food science, solid, liquid and gaseous waste treatment, industry, livestock and agriculture.

The term was probably coined by the Hungarian engineer Károly Ereki, in 1919, when he introduced it in his book Biotechnology in meat and dairy production on a large farm.

According to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, biotechnology could be defined as "any technological application that uses biological systems and living organisms or their derivatives for the creation or modification of products or processes for specific uses".

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity defines modern biotechnology as the application of:

• In vitro techniques of nucleic acid, including recombinant desoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid in cells or or glands.
• The fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family, which overcomes the natural physiological barriers of reproduction or recombination and which are not techniques used in traditional reproduction and selection.
• Recent experience has shown that random results that are not reproducible in the gene modification process can be obtained with a low probability, so the scientific community is being postulated by the specific classification of this type of product and the creation of a protocol that guarantees the safety of all the supposed probable unexpected results.

Applications

Biotechnology has applications in important industrial areas, such as health care, with the development of new approaches for the treatment of diseases; agriculture, with the development of improved crops and food; non-food uses of crops, such as biodegradable plastics, vegetable oils, and biofuels; and environmental care through bioremediation, such as recycling, waste treatment, and cleanup of sites contaminated by industrial activities. This specific use of plants in biotechnology is called plant biotechnology. In addition, it is applied in genetics to modify certain organisms.

The applications of biotechnology are numerous, and are usually classified as:

• Red biotechnology: applies to the use of biotechnology in medical processes. Examples include obtaining organisms to produce antibiotics, developing safer vaccines and new drugs, molecular diagnosis, regenerative therapies and developing genetic engineering to cure diseases through gene manipulation. Inside, you will find:

• Diagnosis of diseases

Biotechnology has provided new diagnostic tools, especially useful for microorganisms that are difficult to cultivate, since they allow their identification without the need to isolate them. Until very recently, all methods were based on microbiological culture, histological staining or chemical tests and serum determinations, some methods generally long and tedious, labor intensive and very difficult to handle. The development of immunodiagnostics with monoclonal antibodies and of techniques that analyze genetic material such as DNA or RNA hybridization and sequencing, with the invaluable technical help of PCR, have been an important and decisive biotechnological achievement in introducing the concept of fast, sensitive and accurate diagnosis. In addition, it is taken into account that this methodology allows its robotization and automation in the future of molecular and genetic diagnosis, which is very encouraging.

• Contributions in Cancer Disease

Biotechnology has provided tools for the development of a new discipline, molecular pathology, which makes it possible to establish a cancer diagnosis based not on tumor morphology, as classical pathology does (microscopy combined with histochemistry), but on its pathogenic characteristics due to genetic and biochemical alterations. Molecular pathology has incorporated techniques of immunohistochemistry and genetic analysis to the study of proteins or nucleic acids extracted from tumors. These techniques have allowed the early detection of malignant cells and also their classification. A tumor that has been detected in its early stages and that is well classified can be easily eliminated before it spreads to other parts of the body, so its early detection and classification can save more lives than the development of new therapies..

• White biotechnology: also known as industrial biotechnology, is that applied to industrial processes. One example is the acquisition of microorganisms to generate a chemical or the use of enzymes such as catalysts or industrial enzyme inhibitors, either to obtain valuable chemicals or to destroy hazardous chemicals (e.g., using oxydorreductase). It also applies to the uses of biotechnology in the textile industry, the creation of new materials, such as biodegradable plastics, and the production of biofuels. Its main objective is the creation of easily degradable products, which consume less energy and generate less waste during production. White biotechnology tends to consume less resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.

• Plant biotechnology or green biotechnology: biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example of this is obtaining transgenic plants capable of growing in unfavourable environmental conditions or pest and disease resistant plants. Green biotechnology is expected to produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional methods of industrial agriculture. An example of this is genetic engineering in plants to express pesticides, thus eliminating the need for external application of them, as is the case of Bt corn. Biotechnology has become a tool in various ecological strategies to sustain or substantially increase natural resources such as forests. In this sense, studies carried out with fungi of a micorrhizal nature allow to implement in the field seedlings of forest species with mycorriza, which will present greater resistance and adaptability than those seedlings that are not.^{[chuckles]required]}

• Blue biotechnology: also called marine biotechnology, is a term used to describe biotechnology applications in marine and aquatic environments. It is still in an early stage of development. Its applications are promising for aquaculture, health care, cosmetics and food products.

• Grey biotechnology: also called environmental biotechnology, is that applied to the maintenance of biodiversity, the preservation of species and the elimination of contaminants and heavy metals from nature. It is very linked to bioremediation, using plants and microorganisms to reduce pollutants.^{[chuckles]required]}

• Orange biotechnology: it is educational biotechnology and applies to the diffusion of biotechnology and training in this area. It provides interdisciplinary information and training on biotechnology topics (e.g., the development of educational strategies to present biotechnological topics such as the design of organisms to produce antibiotics) for the entire society, including people with special needs, such as people with hearing or visual problems. It is intended to encourage, identify and attract people with a scientific vocation and high capacities or overlapping for biotechnology.

Bioremediation and biodegradation

Bioremediation is the process by which microorganisms are used to clean up a contaminated site. Biological processes play an important role in the removal of contaminants, and biotechnology takes advantage of the catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade and convert such compounds. In the field of environmental microbiology, genome-based studies open up new fields of in silico research, expanding the panorama of metabolic networks and their regulation, as well as clues about the molecular pathways of the processes of degradation and adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions. Functional genomics and metagenomics approaches increase understanding of different regulatory pathways and carbon flow networks in unusual environments and for particular compounds, which will undoubtedly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation processes.

Maritime environments are especially vulnerable, as oil spills in coastal regions and offshore are difficult to contain and their damage difficult to mitigate. In addition to pollution through human activities, millions of tons of oil enter the marine environment through natural seeps. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of the oil that enters marine systems is removed by hydrocarbon breakdown activity carried out by microbial communities, in particular, by so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCB). In addition, various microorganisms, such as Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter, and Azotobacter, can be used to break down oil. The oil tanker spill Exxon Valdez, in Alaska in 1989, was the first case in which bioremediation was used on a large scale successfully: the bacterial population was stimulated, supplementing nitrogen and phosphorus, which were the limiting medium.

The use of biological processes for the detoxification of waste and remediation of affected sites has been proposed, since they have proven to be more practical and economically feasible for the handling and treatment of different types of waste from exploration and production activities of oil. Biological treatment methods depend on the ability of microorganisms to break down oily waste to harmless products (carbon dioxide, water and biomass) through biochemical reactions. However, there are some limitations that hinder its applicability, such as nutrient availability, high clay content, aeration and the availability of the contaminant, not to mention the age of the contamination. Studies recently carried out at the Mexican Petroleum Institute demonstrated the potential application of bioremediation technologies in sites contaminated with mud and drilling cuttings through the application of composting technology in biopiles.

The use of new technologies for daily applications such as bioplastic, with less degradation time, contributes to improving the environment, reducing the use of PET, one of the main pollutants.^{[citation required]}

Bioengineering

Biological engineering or bioengineering is a branch of engineering that focuses on biotechnology and the biological sciences. It includes different disciplines such as biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering, biological process engineering, biosystems engineering, bioinformatics engineering, etc. It is an integrated approach to the fundamentals of biological sciences and the traditional principles of classical engineering such as chemistry or computer science.^{[citation needed]}

Bioengineers often work taking biological processes from the laboratory to industrial production scales. On the other hand, they often deal with management, economic and legal problems. Because patents and regulatory systems (for example, the FDA in the United States) are critical issues for biotech companies, bioengineers often need to be aware of these issues.^{[citation needed ]}

There is a growing number of biotechnology companies, and many universities around the world provide programs in bioengineering and biotechnology independently. Among them, those specializing in bioinformatics engineering stand out.^{[citation required]}

This is an interdisciplinary field that deals with biological problems using computational techniques typical of computer engineering. This interdisciplinarity makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. This field can also be called computational biology, and can be defined as "the conceptualization of biology in terms of molecules and then the application of computational techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale&# 34;. Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.^{[citation required]}

Advantages, risks and disadvantages

Advantages

Among the main advantages of biotechnology are:

• Higher performance. Through genetically modified organisms (GMOs), crop yield increases, giving more food for less resources, decreasing crops lost by disease or pests as well as by environmental factors.

• Pesticides reduction. Every time a GMO is modified to withstand a particular pest, it is helping to reduce the use of pesticides associated with the GMO that are often causing great environmental damage and health.

• Improved nutrition. Additional vitamins and proteins may be introduced in foods as well as reducing allergens and natural toxins. Efforts can also be made to cultivate in extreme conditions which would assist countries with less food provision.

• Improved development of new materials.

The application of biotechnology presents risks that can be classified into two different categories: effects on human and animal health and environmental consequences. In addition, there are risks of ethically questionable use of modern biotechnology. (see: Unintended consequences).

Environmental risks

Environmental risks include the possibility of cross-pollination, whereby pollen from genetically modified (GM) crops spreads to non-GM crops in nearby fields, thereby dispersing certain traits such as resistance to herbicides from GM to non-GM plants. This could lead, for example, to the development of more aggressive weeds or wild relatives with greater resistance to diseases or abiotic stresses, upsetting the balance of the ecosystem.

Other ecological risks arise from the widespread use of genetically modified crops with genes that produce insecticidal toxins, such as the Bacillus thuringiensis gene. This can cause resistance to the gene to develop in insect populations exposed to GM crops. There may also be a risk to non-target species, such as birds and butterflies, from plants with insecticidal genes.

Biodiversity can also be lost, for example, as a consequence of the displacement of traditional crops by a small number of genetically modified crops".

In general, the processes of advancing the agricultural frontier in tropical and subtropical areas tend to generate negative environmental impacts, among others: processes of greater soil erosion than in temperate areas and loss of biodiversity.

Health risks

There are risks of transferring toxins from one life form to another, creating new toxins, or transferring allergenic compounds from one species to another, which could lead to unforeseen allergic reactions.

There is a risk of modified bacteria and viruses escaping from high-security laboratories and infecting the human or animal population.

Biological agents are classified, based on the risk of infection, into three groups:

• Biological agent of group 1: the one who is unlikely to cause a disease in man.
• The biological agent of the group 2: the one who can cause a disease in man and may pose a danger to the workers, and it is unlikely that he will spread to the collectivity and generally exist prophylaxis or effective treatment.
• Biological agent of the group 3: the one who is likely to spread to the community and without generally having a prophylaxis or effective treatment.

Disadvantages

Agricultural modernization processes, in addition to increasing production and yields, have other consequences.

• One of them is the decline in the labour force employed by the effects of machining; this generates unemployment and rural exodus in many areas.
• On the other hand, the use of new technologies requires money and access to land and water. Farmers who cannot access these resources are out of modernization and in worse condition to compete with modern productions.

Legislation and regulation

Mexico

The national regulation related to biosafety had focused on aspects of prevention and control of possible risks of the use and application of GMOs for human health, plant and animal health and the environment, aspects in the field of competence of the Secretariats of Health (SS), Secretariat of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, Fisheries and Food (SAGARPA) based on the General Health Law; Federal Law on Plant Health; Law on Production, Certification and Trade of Seeds and in NOM-FITO-056. Regarding the environment, the Ministry of the Environment, Natural Resources (SEMARNAT) is governed by the General Law of Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection and the regulations on environmental impact. Other government agencies related to GMOs are the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit (SHCP), which applies the regulations related to the control of cross-border movements of goods, customs, taxation, etc.; the Ministry of Economy, responsible for foreign trade, commercial policies, international treaties; the IMPI, in charge of aspects related to industrial property (patents, trademarks, etc.) and the Ministry of Public Education (SEP) and the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT), the latter two indirectly related to biosafety when applying legal norms related to the elaboration of educational and research policies.

In the specific field of biosafety of modern biotechnology activities, the current regulation in the country^{[which one?]} requires a review and systematic integration and harmony that allows it to be consistent with international criteria, that has the appropriate operational elements to make it effective thanks to the evaluation and monitoring of biotechnological risks, that guarantee the legal certainty of those who carry out research, production, commercialization activities and, in In general, the management of genetically modified organisms and the products obtained from them.

On April 30, 2002, the Senate of the Republic ratified the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity, which entered into force on September 11, 2003, ninety days after ratification for 50 countries. Although the origin and nature of the Protocol is environmental, its content and the way in which it is legally assimilated in our country for its application will have important repercussions on the research, production and commercialization of GMOs and products that contain them, as well as a effect on the organization and participation of different government authorities. In addition, it is also important to remember that the Congress of the Union approved in December 2001, a modification to article 420 Ter of the Federal Criminal Code, which could result in the fact that any individual, if he handles, uses or transports transgenics, may incur the commission of a crime and, therefore, be subject to criminal proceedings.

Based on the foregoing, in 2002 the Senate of the Republic requested technical support from the Mexican Academy of Sciences (AMC) for the elaboration of the Initiative for the Biosafety of Genetically Modified Organisms Law (ILBOGMs).

Additional bibliography

• Jesús Ballesteros; Encarnación Fernández Ruiz-Gálvez (2007). Biotechnology and posthumanism. Editorial Aranzadi. ISBN 978-84-8355-095-3.
• Fukuyama, Francis (2002). The End of Man: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution. Editions B. ISBN 978-84-666-0874-9.
• Jonas, Hans (1997). Technical, medicine and ethics: on the practice of the principle of responsibility. Editions Paidós Ibérica. ISBN 978-84-493-0341-8.
• Henco, A. International Biotechnology Economics and Policy: Science, Business Planning and Entrepreneurship; Impact on Agricultural Markets and Industry; Opportunities in the Healthcare Sector. ISBN 978-0-7552-0293-5.