Aztec civilization

The Aztec civilization were a Mesoamerican people of Nahua descent who founded Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Around the fifteenth century, in the late Postclassic period, it became the center of one of the largest states known in Mesoamerica, located on an islet to the west of Lake Texcoco, on the central and southern margins of the lakes, as in Huexotla, Coatlinchan, Culhuacan, Iztapalapa, Chalco, Xico, Xochimilco, Tacuba, Azcapotzalco, Tenayuca and Xaltocan, towards the end of the Early Postclassic (900-1200),practically dry today. On the islet sits the current Mexico City, which corresponds to the same geographical location. Allied with other towns of the lacustrine basin of the valley of Mexico —Tlacopan and Texcoco—. The Mexica subdued several indigenous populations that settled in the center and south of the current territory of Mexico, grouped territorially in altépetl.

In Mexico along the last decade has arose a movement for renaming the Aztec civilization as Mexica civilization, but Mexicas were an Aztec people, and this renaming is unaware that cultural manifestations of all South Mexico and North Central America were part of the same shared cultural technological influence of all Aztec peoples, and not only about the Aztec Empire.

The Aztec are characterized by the exploitation of highly symbiotic crops —depending on human manipulation, such as corn, chili, pumpkin, beans, cocoa, etc.—; the extensive use of feathers for making clothing; the use of astronomical calendars —a ritual calendar of 260 days and a civil calendar of 365—; a sophisticated ornamental and military pre-Hispanic metallurgy based mainly on bronze, gold and silver; a writing in the form of pictograms, used to document facts and calculations of architectural works based on its own metric system to measure land, comparable to other systems of measure of the Modern Age;the extensive use of products derived from cacti and agaves; and the treatment of igneous rocks (obsidian) for surgical and war purposes.

Introduction

The Aztec were the last Mesoamerican people who formed a rich and complex religious, political, cosmological, astronomical, philosophical and artistic tradition learned and developed by the peoples of Mesoamerica over many centuries. Along with the Mayans, they are the most studied subject in Mesoamerican history, given that documentary and archaeological sources are preserved, as well as numerous testimonies made mostly later by survivors of the Conquest of Mexico. They were the most powerful people on the continent before the arrival of the Spanish. This town developed important contributions to the world and to agriculture.

Background

The Mexica or Aztec period was one more phase of other cultures and archaeological periods, among which the following stand out:

• Olmecs (2500 BC-200 AD): builders of pyramids, the chiefs were the priest-kings;
• Teotihuacán (400 BC-800 AD): the temple of the moon and the pyramid of the sun are found; their main god was Quetzalcóatl;
• Toltecs (900 AD-1168 AD): had Tula (Tollan-Xicocotitlan) as their capital.

Phylogenetically, it is clear that the Nahuas speak languages ​​related to the Uto-Aztecan peoples of northern Mexico and the southern United States, and there is various evidence that they migrated towards the end of the first millennium AD. C. towards the south until reaching the center of Mexico. The Mexicas themselves collect this migration in various legendary stories, which may contain some real historical element, which explain the phases of their migration to the south.

Mexica mythology, being very diverse, but reinforced under the virtual mandate of Tlacaélel, placed the mythical origin in Chicomóztoc (in Nahuatl: chicome-oztotli-co 'Place of the seven caves'), a site related to Aztlán —where the Aztec name—, although there is no consensus on the exact point where the site is located because it is a mythical site. The language of the Mexica was classical Nahuatl, which is currently the indigenous language with the largest linguistic community in Mexico.

The Aztec ethnonym was popularized by researchers much later than his time. However, it is worth mentioning that the Mexicas did not call themselves that way, and that it was the result of a later misappointment; and that later chronicles named them at all times as "Mexicans" or "those from Mexico."

Upon the arrival of the Spaniards, the Mexicas maintained tense relations with the subjugated altépetl, on whom they imposed heavy tax burdens. This situation was taken advantage of by the newcomers in 1519, who quickly established alliances with the Zempoaltecas and the Tlaxcaltecatl.

After the fall of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the Mexica ruling elite was gradually subdued and integrated into colonial society, recovering many of their positions and privileges. The rest of Mexica society suffered a series of collapses -mainly demographic- in all its structures, but there were many continuities and resistances that remained for a long time and to this day in the indigenous peoples of Mexico, although the bulk of the population It entered a process of historical demographic decline in less than a century suffered by all indigenous peoples due to the new European diseases.

Terminology

In the historiography of Mesoamerica, the terms Nahua, Mexica, and Aztec appear as loosely equivalent. However, they should not be taken as synonyms. These three terms appear when talking about the inhabitants who settled in the Anahuac Valley, mainly on the islet of Tenochtitlan during the 16th century:

• The term Nahua refers to all those who spoke or currently speak the Nahua language (Náhuatl). During the invasion, the inhabitants of Great Tenochtilan were mostly Nahuas; however, they were not the only ones in Mesoamerica. And Nahua enclaves existed throughout central Mexico and even as far south as El Salvador (lordship of Cuzcatlán), Nicaragua (Nicaraos), and Costa Rica (Nicoya).
• The Nahuas who lived in the areas of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco were known as Mexica because they called themselves Mexihcah. The Spanish chronicles of the 16th century modified the word and named them "Mexicans". This is how they appear in colonial history. However, the Nahuas of Texcoco and Tlacopan who participated as allies of the Mexicas and who are sometimes considered part of the Aztecs because they had the same origin called themselves Acolhuas and Tepanecs, respectively.
• Finally, from the 19th century onward, most historians outside of Mexico have used the Aztec name or appellation to refer to the Mexica (and frequently their Triple Alliance allies as well). The Aztec name refers to the myth narrated by the colonial chronicles, according to which "the Mexicas, the Acolhuas and the Tepanecs had left a place called Aztlán".

In 1427 the Mexica elect a new king, Izcóatl, who was the son of Acamapichtli, the first Mexica king, and a slave. This is the only case in which a man who did not have a woman of Toltec blood as a mother ascended the throne; the choice was surely due to the qualities of the candidate, whose military genius and political skill were to, in the thirteen years of his reign, transform the destiny of his people.

Due to the dispute between the sons of Tezozómoc, the different "governments in exile", caused by his conquests, understood that it was time to return to their different countries and free themselves from the yoke of Azcapotzalco. An alliance is then formed between the Mexica and various other groups. Of these, by far the most important is the one that represented the ancient Chichimeca dynasty that had reigned over Texcoco until the defeat of Ixtlilxochitl, which we have already recounted. The allies obtained the neutrality of some of the Tepanec cities and, after an extremely difficult war, Azcapotzalco itself was taken in 1428. This does not mark the end of the conflict, since Maxtla took refuge in Coyoacán and in more distant places, until he is finally defeated definitively in 1433. Then,

History

Origins

The origin of the Mexica is located between the Nahuatl-speaking groups of northern Mexico and the ancestors of those who settled during the so-called Chichimeca stage. Traditionally it was thought that there was a racial division between Aridoamerica —with mainly hunter-gatherer groups— and Mesoamerica, with sedentary peoples and farmers. From the most recent studies it is known that this was not the case and that ethnic diversity allowed many groups of Chichimeco origin to have various degrees of stratification and sedentary lifestyle, depending on regional variations and the environmental conditions where they settled. For this reason, by having greater contact with Mesoamerican groups, they adopt modes and civil uses that they already had in some way in the north of present-day Mexico.

The Mexicas are considered the last great Chichimeca migration to the Central Highlands, which is said to have occurred between the 12th and 13th centuries. The official Mexica myth states their mythical origin in Aztlán, an original island from where they departed by divine designs. Historical evidence shows —with the exception of the hypotheses of Wigberto Jiménez Moreno and Paul Kirchhoff that place them on the island of Mexcaltitlán Nayarit or in the south of Guanajuato, respectively— that the idea of ​​Aztlán responds, like many other Mexica symbolisms and diphrasisms, to a mythical and archetypal conception of the islet of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, in which the myth was already forged with the splendor of said city, in addition to the fact that the documentary sources mention an assimilation of the Mesoamerican from the first stages of migration. According to the Mexica mythical vision,

The Boturini Codex lists the official route made by the Mexicas, which included sites in Hidalgo and Mexico; There are more than 30 sources that apparently indicate particular itineraries, these through analysis are reduced to three main routes, so it is necessary to take into account, in addition to the Boturini, these two other great traditions. The second derives from the Codex Mexicanus and the third from the Codex Telleriano-remensis.

The official mythical tradition must be seen through the way in which the ancient Mexicans created and wrote their history, to which they tried to insert religious and political elements, so it is necessary to separate its components and discern looking for the most plausible historical facts.

Arrival to the Basin of Mexico

Upon arriving in the Basin of Mexico, the Mexicas found a complex and settled political panorama, as well as the submission by the Tepanecas of Azcapotzalco to almost all the Altépetl; We can consider from the sources that their arrival is at the time of settling in the Xaltocan-Tzompanco region, most likely between 1226 and 1227. This seems to be the most firm historical moment from which their spread to the western shore of Lake Texcoco starts., until settling in Chapultepec approximately in 1280. After being expelled from Chapultepec (1299) by the altépetl of Azcapotzalco, Xaltocan, Culhuacan and Xochimilco, they settled in Tizaapan, the territorial domain of Culhuacan, which they abandoned due to harsh conditions and a confrontation with the culhuas,

According to the accepted official history, on an islet to the west of Lake Texcoco, the Mexicas founded Mexico-Tenochtitlan in the year 2 Calli or 1325 where, according to the official myth, the prophecy of an eagle devouring a snake on a nopal was fulfilled.. It is now known that the Mexica previously settled in various towns, they even founded some cities (such as Huixachtitlán), the information codified in the documents reveals that they already inhabited the islet since 1274. The final settlement included the acceptance of Azcapotzalco as supreme altépetl, paying tribute periodically and a general condition of obedience. The islet was overgrown with tulares, reeds and a rich aquatic diversity that will allow them to survive as well as a strategic military position,

The Mexica and the war

The Mexica religion held that it was necessary to appease the gods with human sacrifices. For this reason, historian Victor W. von Hagen explains:"War and religion, at least for the Aztecs, were inseparable. They belonged to each other.... In order to obtain suitable prisoner-victims to sacrifice to the gods, there were incessant petty wars and even their weaponry was willing to incapacitate, not to kill, all to obtain food for the gods: blood and heart.”

Territory

Mexico-Tenochtitlan was located on an islet to the west of Lake Texcoco, in the lacustrine area of ​​the Basin of Mexico. The Mexica culture occupied most of the center and south of the current Mexican Republic, it extended, from the west of the Toluca Valley, covering almost all the states of Veracruz, Puebla, in the center, Hidalgo, Mexico, Morelos and in Michoacán. only what is now the Municipality of Zitácuaro since there was an important border between the Tarascos and the Mexicas, in the south; much of the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca, as well as the coast of Chiapas up to the border with Guatemala. However, the lordships of Meztitlán (in Hidalgo), Teotitlán and Tututepec (in Oaxaca), Purépechas (in Michoacán), Yopitzingo (in Guerrero) and Tlaxcala were outside their domain.

The Basin of Mexico is a geographical entity of more than 7,800 square kilometers of surface that is located in the southern part of the Central Altiplano in the Mexican Republic. It is a basin limited by chains of high mountains in the form of an amphitheater, which had in the middle a lacustrine system made up of lakes Zumpango, Xaltocan, Texcoco, Xochimilco and Chalco. Where the level was low and the waters fresh, as in the lakes of Xochimilco and Chalco, chinampero cultivation was possible. Between 2,270 and 2,750 meters above sea level, the somonte area is included, whose fertile lands are favorable for the development of forests as well as for extensive agricultural practice. From 2,750 meters above sea level, the slopes are dominated by coniferous forests and populated by larger fauna.

State

The altépetl subjugated by the Mexica people did not form a unified political system but, rather, a tribute system to Tenochtitlan. Among the Nahua peoples, the most important leader was called huey tlatoque ('great chief'), also known as huey tlatoani ('he who speaks').

After the formation of the Triple Alliance, the Mexica political model was definitively established as an elective monarchy. A council was in charge of electing the huey tlatoani, who, once elected, was given absolute and unrestricted powers. However, it is suspected that a tlatoani huey, Tizoc, was poisoned by the council, as he was considered inept and weak. It is noteworthy that religious and cosmogonic factors influence the formation of a tripartite government such as that of the Triple Alliance (where Mexico-Tenochtitlan had the greatest power and the greatest proportional part of tributes) after the defeat of the Tepanec power and the submission of the altépetl of Azcapotzalco, since it was not the first time that governments of this type had been formed.

At the time Moctezuma Xocoyotzin ruled, another 38 altépetl were paying tribute (according to the Mendoza Codex), where the tribute was the central element of submission as well as the cession of land where paid laborers worked (mayeques) and the product obtained went directly to the tlatoani; the acceptance of the main Mexica deity, the supply of men to the military contingents, the provisioning of the same on the way to a campaign of conquest and settle political and legal matters in Tenochtitlan. For this reason, it is imprecise to speak of an empire, since Tenochtitlan did not seek a geographical extension per se.or a state or national unity but a greater allocation of resources and obedience to the huey tlatoani. Most of the altépetl preferred to pay tribute instead of receiving a military expedition that would burn their main temple and throw their deity down the steps (a symbol even represented iconographically in the altépetl subjugation codices).

In the most important altépetl there was also a calpixque or collector who focused his activity on taxation. The altépetl that expressly accepted Mexica rule were allowed to maintain their administrative and political forms and organizations as well as deities as long as they were under Huitzilopochtli. Mexica officials with tlatoanis attributions resided only in important regions, containing other ethnic groups or where there was an open rebellion. For more than 50 years and until the appraisal made by the oidor Valderrama, this structure will remain with few changes in the indigenous peoples of central New Spain.

Ciudad

Originally, Tenochtitlan was built on a small islet in the primitive Lake Texcoco that was successively enlarged artificially until it was joined to the islets of Tlatelolco, Nonoalco, Tultenco and Mixhuca, through hydraulic engineering of fills, piles and internal channels, as well as as water-containing dams and bridges up to 13.5 square kilometers. There is no consensus on the population of Tenochtitlan, most historians give a conservative value between 80,000 to 230,000 inhabitants, larger than most European cities of his time, Constantinople (with 200,000 inhabitants), Paris (with 185,000) and Venice (with 130,000). Other historians give other estimates: Eduardo Noguera, based on old maps, calculates 50,000 houses and 300,000 inhabitants; Soustelle calculates 700,000 inhabitants when including the population of Tlatelolco and that of the islets and satellite cities in the area. Tlatelolco was originally an independent city of Mexica power, but was eventually subdued and turned into a suburb of Tenochtitlan.

Political organization

Government institutions

The supreme authority in Mexico City-Tenochtitlan was a tlatoani (in Nahuatl tlahtoani 'orator'). The "Mexica empire" called Triple Alliance by its subjects was initially a military alliance of three cities: Texcoco, Tlacopan and Tenochtitlan. At the head of each of these was a tlatoani who was the highest authority in that city. Over time, the city of Tenochtitlan became prominent and in fact the other two became de facto subject to the orders of the tlatoani of Tenochtitlan, who was therefore called huēy tlahtoani ('great speaker') to indicate his position above the other two. This is the position that European historiography calls "Mexica emperor".

All the positions of tlatoanis (Nahuatl tlahtoqueh or tlahtoanih) were hereditary positions. In addition to the tlatoanis there were the "nobles" (Nahuatl pīpiltin) with many of whom the tlatoani had kinship relations. To this class frequently belonged the wife of the "emperor." The rest of society was made up of warriors, priests, and the commoners (Nahuatl macehualtin).

Measurement methods

Using the Acolhua-Mexica codices with modern mathematics, the precision of the area values ​​was evaluated, where the mathematical validity of the records in the codices is verified. The Acolhua-Mexica calculation methods had an error of less than 5% in 75% of the plots measured, while 85% of the measurements had only an error of less than 10%. In the codices, five recurrent algorithms were detected that exactly reproduced the area in 78% of the registered plots.

These results indicate that the areas were calculated and not physically measured. The Acolhua-Mexica arithmetic was functionally accurate in its cultural context, and its accuracy was compared with current measurement methods, thus proving a high accuracy of the results with a very low margin of error in most of the analyzed terrains. The margin of error in 60% of the plots studied is negligible (<1%).

Advanced measurements and calculation

Other more advanced methods of calculation are still unknown, since only surviving codices refer to land of low economic value where the area was for the allocation of taxes. It is suspected that more precise methods were used for Mexica engineering works, such as dams, aqueducts, temples, etc. These unknown methods were necessary for the construction of structural elements which required an advanced calculation of their capacities, such as columns, walls, pipes, stairways, squares, among others. However, more precise measurements with smaller units were used for the creation of the most important sculptures of the ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan. Studies carried out on the Tlaltecuhtli Monolith show a design pattern which follows these units.

Accuracy of Mexica calculations

Apart from the side-by-side rule, the Surveyor's Rule, also developed by the Sumerians and used by the Romans,. where

A = (a + c)/2 x (b + d)/2.

According to the studies that used this topographer's rule, the large number of quadrilaterals with similar Ac (Area recorded in the codices) and Am (Area calculated) indicates that the tlacuilos chose algorithms to approximate the largest possible area in the limits of a given terrain. This characteristic indicates that in order to reduce the tax burden, the Tlacuilos were able to intentionally produce inaccurate measurements by systematically recording lower values ​​in their linear measurements and areas. Other systematic errors were found when comparing them with a base 20, since this was the base of the Mesoamerican number system.

Milcocollis and tlahuelmantlis reading

To obtain the values ​​of the milcocollis (perimeter codes) the values ​​of the sides of the measured land were simply added, the unit used was the tlalcuahuitl (T). In the case of the tlahuelmantlis (codices of areas) the reading is more complex. The central glyphs are multiplied by the value 20 (since the areas were commonly registered in units of 20) to this result an additional value is added which is indicated in the upper right part of the terrain polygon; the result is the value of the land area in square tlalcuahuitl (T). Some tlalhuemantlis showed a maize glyph inside the terrain polygons, which indicated that the terrain was less than 400 T.

Lenght measures

To measure distances, the Mexicas used a group of units that were related to each other, among which the known measurements are the cemmatl (one hand), cemyollotli (one heart), cemomitl (one bone), cemacolli (one arm), cemmitl (one arrow). These symbols were used together with the annotation of other multiplier symbols of the number of times the object to be measured was worth, which were a vertical line that represented the unit, a group of 5 lines joined the first with the last with a horizontal line representing 5 units, a solid circle or a banner (pantli) representing 20 units. Land perimeters were recorded in milcocollis (perimeter codes).

Unit	Description	Approximate SI equivalent
matlacicxitla	10 foot measure	2,786 m
maitlneuitzantli	3 thieves	2,508 m
Tlalcuahuitl	measuring wooden cane (3 varas)	2,508 m
niquizantli	vertical breaststroke, 2.5 varas	2,090 m
maitl	hand, horizontal breaststroke, 2 varas	1,672 m
cenequeztzalli	stature, height of a peasant	1,60 m
mitl	Atlatl Spear, 1.5 varas	1,254 m
yollotli	heart, 1 rod	83,59 cm
ahcolli	shoulder	77,5 cm
ciacatl	armpit	72,0 cm
tlacxitl	paso	69,65 cm
molicpitl	elbow, half a yard	41,80 cm
matzotzopaztli	forearm	38,6 cm
omitl	bone	33,44 cm
xocpalli	foot print	27,86 cm
macpalli	palm of the hand, fourth, a quarter of a vara	20,90 cm
Canmiztitl	jeme	18,0 cm
centlacol icxitl	half foot	13,93 cm
mapilli	finger of the hand	1,74 cm

Use of measurement units in monumental works

Teotihuacan

A repeated value of 0.83 m corresponding to the Mexica yollotli “heart” has been discovered in the city of Teotihuacán. A railing of the Pyramid of Quetzalcóatl measures 1.66 m, where the archaeologist Sugiyama showed that this measurement was systematically and correctly applied to the other buildings in the city.

Tlaltecuhtli Monolith

Various multiples of the yollotli are used in the Tlaltecuhtli Monolith discovered in the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlán; this monumental sculpture measures 4.17 m long (5 yollotli) or 20 quarters, and 3.62 m wide or 18 quarters. In addition, the texts compiled by Bernardino de Sahagún show how Nahua units were used in traditional daily life

Palace of Nezahualcoyotl

The palace of Nezahualcóyotl was only documented by Alva Ixtlixóchitl and only its dimensions are mentioned, there are no milcocollis or tlahuelmantlis reporting its dimensions, only the stories of Ixtlixóchitl where it expresses its dimensions in measurements of the Mexica metric system, which converted into the SI they are 1,031 km long, 0.817 km wide, with a diagonal of 1,316 km and a perimeter of 3,699 km. Only a basic description of the palace is found on the map or Codex Quinatzin.

Oztoticpac Palace

The Oztoticpac palace, unlike the Nezahualcóyotl palace, is completely documented with its dimensions, shape, and distribution. This uses milcocollis or tlahuelmantlis to describe the dimensions of its corridors, plazas, and mansions, in addition to including land attached to the palace.

Great Temple of Tenochtitlan

The Templo Mayor in the Sacred Enclosure of Tenochtitlan was also built according to the Mexica metric system. According to the archaeological remains in the streets of Mexico City and with the help of various reports after the conquest, it is believed that the Templo Mayor averaged in its seventh and last stage of construction 91 m long, 100 m wide with a diagonal of 135 m with a perimeter of 383 m.

Metallurgy in the Mexica Empire

The use of metals in Mesoamerica is believed to start in 800 BC. C. with most of the evidence for it in western Mexico. Much the same as in the case of South America, precious metals are found more abundantly in the elites. In this area a specialized tradition in the alloying of metals was developed that included, in addition to pure metals, alloys of precious metals with structural metals. High hardness tools were developed by alloying bronze with various metals, using cold working to increase their hardness. They also used the alloy of gold and silver added to bronze to give them ornamental tones, as well as to modify their sound properties in the various metallic instruments used by the Mesoamericans.

The exchange of technology and articles between the peoples of Ecuador and Colombia with western Mexico promoted development and research in both civilizations. Similar metallic artifacts have been found in these two regions: rings, needles, tweezers, axes, awls, knives and shields which were manufactured in a similar way and in contemporary historical contexts in both areas.

In addition to all of these artifacts, of which specimens survive, there are many other objects and tools found only in the codices. Among these are the Tepoztli, the Amamalócotl and the metallic version of the Coa or Uictli. However, specimens of the uictli and the Tepoztli survive, but only the tips and heads of these respectively; these objects are in the Regional Museum of Guadalajara.

Collection of the Regional Museum of Guadalajara

The Guadalajara Regional Museum in the state of Jalisco in Mexico, has one of the largest collections of metal objects from the Purépecha Empire. It has around 3,200 artifacts that come from the states of Jalisco, Michoacán, Colima and Nayarit. This collection was collected by Federico Solórzano.

Artifact	Amount	Percentage
bluebells	1934	60.5
Open Rings	685	21.4
decorative axes/coin	186	5.8
ornamental plates	136	4.3
needles	87	2.7
axes	41	1.3
Tweezers	42	1.3
punches	23	<1
decorative bells	22	<1
Pins	17	<1
Hooks	14	<1
beads	9	<1
Uictlis (Coas) or Azadas	3	<1

Purepecha Empire

The continuous contact between these civilizations kept the flow of ideas fostering the development of long-distance Andean trade lines, influence from areas further south that seem to have reached the region and led to a second period (1200-1300 BC to the Arrival of the Spaniards). By this time, bronze alloys were already widely used by metallurgists in western Mexico, especially the Purépecha Empire, partially because specific mechanical properties were needed for tools, weapons, and decorations. In some cases, the introduction of different metals to the alloy was with the aim of changing the tonality of the object or changing its resonance to improve its musical quality.

The objects and the techniques were imported from South America, but the metallurgists of western Mexico began to work the minerals of the metals that abounded in local deposits, the metal was not imported from South America. This technology was also dispersed to the rest of Mesoamerica where western Mexico had the best manufacturing in the area. Provenance studies on some artifacts from southern Mesoamerica made using the lost-wax technique have shown that they were dissimilar to western artifacts, so there could have been a second point of metallurgical development since it has not been possible to identify the source.

• Bronze ax specimens
• Photograph of a set of Mesoamerican bronze axes in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City
• Photograph of a second set of Mesoamerican bronze axes in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City

Mexica empire

The Mexicas (Aztecs) at the beginning did not use metals massively, even when they acquired objects from other civilizations. However, during its military expansion, the metallurgical technology present in the various dominated areas began to disperse throughout the empire. By the time of the conquest, it is believed that the use of bronze alloys was so common that in part of the daily life of the citizens of Tenochtitlan it was customary to give away bronze axes as a sign of social status and to win favors within. the hierarchical structure of the Mexica

Musical instruments

A large number of bells, rattles and especially rattles have been found, where the latter were manufactured by means of the lost wax casting technique as has been seen in Colombia and also in most of Mexico. During this period copper was used almost exclusively.

Metallurgical properties

Mesoamerican axes were mainly made of bronze in the Postclassic period, with very high Vickers hardness (VHN) values ​​ranging from 130 to 297 VHN for bronze alloys. Only the preclassic axes, which were older and more primitive, their value varied between 80-135 VHN

The use of metallurgy in western Mexico by sea during the Classic period, since most of the objects found have been found near the coast This technology seems to have been imported through the League of Mercantes which traded artifacts as far south as Ecuador and as far north as Culiacán, Mexico. The artifacts from Ecuador and western Mexico show that these artifacts were found in analogous archaeological contexts, share identical chemical composition and manufacturing techniques, and their designs are very similar.

The grain size of the metallic alloy is variable throughout the object, showing intensive cold-working by hammering on its edges. This cold-working treatment increases the hardness of the ax in this important part, leaving the rest of the softer structure so that it can withstand the impacts of everyday use.

Material	Value
Bronze Cu-Sn	274HV
Bronze Cu-As-Sn	297HV
Bronze Cu-As	195HV
347L stainless steel	180HV
Hierro	30–80HV

Cultural aspects

Education

The universal education of children was compulsory until the age of fourteen, it was in the hands of their parents, but supervised by the authorities of their calpulli. Part of this education involved learning a collection of sayings, called huēhuetlàtolli ("sayings of the old"), which represented Aztec ideals.

There were two types of schools: telpochcalli, for practical and military studies, and calmécac, for specialized learning in writing, astronomy, theology, and leadership.

Religion

The Mexica religion was the synthesis of the millenary beliefs and traditions of the ancient Mesoamerican peoples, of a complexity that implied existence itself, the creation of the universe and the situation of the human being with respect to the divine, closely linked to agriculture and rain.. The human concert had its reason for being in divine nature and involved various concepts, of which the Mexica were the heirs of a Mesoamerican religious nucleus built over many centuries.

According to what was stated by the scholar Alfredo López Austin, in the Mesoamerican conception matter was made up of an animated part —visible, tangible— and another with an internal charge with two forces, one bright, hot and dry and the other dark, cold and wet., similar to the notion of the cosmos (which synthesized a cosmogonic belief in which the luminous part was the celestial vault up to the place where the sun lived —of masculine/paternal characteristic, producer of fertile rain— and the dark part with the underworld —feminine/ recipient of the fertilizing rain and site of human and natural conception). The gods were integrated in various ways by these two materials and maintained constant communication with humans, who could get to "host"

These forces permeated everything inhabited on Earth and their balance characterized the micro and macrocosmic order, which had to be maintained. In the Mexica case, a solid priestly elite held the power of communication and balance as a form of ideological submission to the bulk of the population, neophyte in cosmogonic explanations. The religious festivals were intended to balance the creative will against the destructive or harmful and thus guarantee the continuity of the cycles, from the vital to the agricultural. It was until the Postclassic peoples that the combination of these beliefs together with that of the necessary vital renewal and recycling of vital forces had in human blood the living expression of the ritual of continuity. Thus, sacrifices were made either to humans invaded by divine forces and who were immolated in order to renew the powers of the "humanized" gods or in search of food (the precious water or atl-tlachinolli) vital for the celestial transit insurance. From the reform of Tlacaélel, the belief for the Mexicas that blood was the food of Tonatiuh, which was transported through the sky in two enormous serpents, was concretized. This belief is represented in the Stone of the Sun. In relation to this, it is worth mentioning that the political, religious and military elites practiced ritual anthropophagy with the victims of the sacrifices.

Quetzalcóatl was an ancient god, prior to the Mexica, of which there are different versions: for some he was the creator of man, while for others he was a civilizing god. He is also known as the god of the wind under the name of Ehécatl, which is one of his forms, and another of his forms is that of the god of water and god of fertility. Quetzalcóatl is considered the son of the virgin goddess Coatlicue and the twin brother of the god Xólotl. As the introducer of culture, he brought agriculture and the calendar to man, and he is patron of arts and crafts. In a Mexica myth, the god Quetzalcóatl allowed himself to be seduced by Tezcatlipoca, but threw himself on a funeral pyre full of regret. After his death his heart became the morning star, and as such he is linked to the divinity Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli. In any case, this god, described as a white-faced, bearded being, was a peaceful and civilizing god, opposed to human sacrifice, who tried to stop this ritual practice. Failing in his purpose, he migrated eastward, promising that one day he would return in a given year of the Mexica count. The myth of Quetzalcóatl is very interesting to understand the reaction of the Mexicas before the arrival of the Spaniards (Hernán Cortés).

Main temple

In the center of the city was the Templo Mayor, a walled enclosure (with a wall in the form of a snake, coatepantli) where the main temples and the House of Youth (telpuchcalli) were located. Nearby was the Axayácatl palace, which had 100 rooms with their own bathroom for visitors and ambassadors. It was there that Cortés's men stayed, along with their Tlaxcalan allies.

Moctezuma Xocoyotzin's palace had several annexes. One of them was the house of the beasts: two enclosures where animals from a large part of Mesoamerica were cared for. One enclosure was dedicated to birds of prey and the other to a wide variety of animals, including birds, reptiles, and mammals. About 300 people were in charge of caring for the animals. There was also a botanical garden dedicated especially to medicinal plants. Another section was a kind of aquarium, containing 10 saltwater ponds and 10 freshwater ponds for fish and waterfowl.

The canals were crossed by wooden bridges that were removed at night. It was by trying to cross these canals at night that the invaders lost most of the gold they had stolen from Moctezuma's palace. The layout of the canals is still preserved in the layout of some avenues in present-day Mexico City, such as Mexico-Tacuba, Calzada del Tepeyac or Calzada de Tlalpan.

Artes

The Mexica people were a good sculptor people since they could make sculptures of all sizes in which they captured religious or nature themes. They captured the essence of what they wanted to represent and then made their works in great detail. In the largest sculptures they used to represent gods and kings. The smaller ones were used for representations of animals and common objects. The Mexicas used stone and wood and sometimes decorated the sculptures with colored paint or inlaid with precious stones.

Music, song and dance accompanied all religious ceremonies, marriages, funerals, sacrifices, those of a political nature such as the ascension of a new leader, those of a warrior nature and even the festivities related to calendrical cycles. Religious dances were performed in the courtyards of the temples. Some musical instruments used are Teponaztli, Tecomapiloa, Omichicahuaztli, Huehuetl, Coyolli, Chililitli, Chicahuaztli, Cacalachtli, Ayotl, Ayacahtli, Tetzilacatl, Ayoyotes. The tlapitzalli, a clay flute, was used to signal the start of a battle. Snail shells were also used as trumpets.

Mexica astronomy and astrology: the relationship of the stars and heavens

Without a doubt, the three stars that the Mexicas called the most attention are: the sun, the moon and the planet Venus, which is why these stars have caused great beliefs and myths. On the one hand they believed that the Moon was a god who had sacrificed himself and on the other that he was the son of Tlaloc. They thought that the vaguely visible spots were made by rabbits. In the same way, they attributed death and the reactivation of their environment, (for example: vegetation, menstruation, etc.) Due to the way in which it "disappeared" and "reappeared". The Moon represented femininity, fertility, vegetation and also drunkenness, having tecciztlì (the sea snail) as its symbol, which in turn is the symbol of the female reproductive system. When an eclipse occurred, they thought that the moon died, (for this reason it was a sacrificed god), and they represented it as a goddess in opposition to the Sun (masculine star). In ancient Teotihuacán they sacrificed men to the Sun and women to the Moon. In certain aspects the moon is related to water, in the manuscripts it is represented in a half-moon-shaped container filled with water, with the silhouette of the rabbit standing out on it.

The goddesses (such as the water goddess) have not a few attributes in common, particularly in their clothing. The gods of drunkenness (being several, since there are several ways to get drunk) such as the "pulque" were considered lunar divinities, since they were considered the cause of abundant harvests, making the gods of drunkenness gods of the harvests abundant and the protection of banquet, true festivals of drinks to celebrate abundance. They were called Centzon Totochtin, the "four hundred rabbits", however, when we analyze their names we realize that they refer to the names of a town, (eg Tepoztlán, a Nahua town in the Cuernavaca valley), this is explained since they were grouped small local gods for each harvest and celebration. Without a doubt the most important of the four hundred rabbits was Ometochtli "Two-rabbit". These gods were so important that several religious hymns were dedicated to them. When comparing what was previously said about the Sun and the Moon, it is possible to notice under both Stars the characteristics of the primordial couple, fire (sun) and Earth (moon); the very ancient duality represented in Heaven.

Venus

The planet Venus was called Hueycitlalin (the great star). In his god aspect (see Deity) he was Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli. Several manuscripts represent this god as an archer. He was feared as a cause of disease, and to prevent it, care was taken to repair cracks in houses and close any openings in them as Venus headed up the western horizon.

In another aspect (Borgia Codex plate 54, upper right) the god Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli appears in the funeral costume of the god of death, Mictlantecuhtli, with his face covered with a mask in the form of a dead man's head. With this costume, in addition to receiving the characteristics of a god who gives diseases and bad omens, he remembers that Venus was born from the death of Quetzalcóatl. After the sacrifice, Quetzalcóatl, converted into Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, spent four days in the hell of the North, the domain of Mictlantecuhtli. Here we find the theme of death and rebirth, of the journey to the country of death that unites the three personalities of Quetzalcóatl-Xólotl-Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli.

The observation of the movement of Venus gained great importance in astronomy and in indigenous Chronology. Seventy-five venusian synodic cycles of 584 days are equivalent to 104 solar years, this period was called huehuetiliztli (old age). On the other hand, the Venusian synodic cycles were counted in groups of five (equivalent to 8 solar years). That is why Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli is usually represented with his face painted with five large white dots, two on each cheek and one on his nose.

The ancient Mexicans distinguished and knew numerous constellations. They especially observed the movement of the Pleiades (called "Tianquiztli" in Nahuatl) every end of the "century", that is, every 52 years. Its importance lies in the fact that if this movement continued at midnight, the world would not perish even during the following 52-year period. The Big Dipper is represented by Tezcatlipoca, in the form of a jaguar (ocelotl). Tezcatlipoca is also everything, the night sky where darkness is sovereign, it synthesizes the somber and dark side of nature.

In general, all the stars were divided into two opposing groups: the Centzon Mimixcoa to the north and the Centzon Huitznáhuac to the south. The "Four Hundred Cloud Serpents", small northern divinities, haunt the great steppe of cacti; the "Southern Four Hundred" are brothers of Huitzilopochtli, whom he killed at birth.

The thirteen heavens

The Aztecs had a basic structure of the Universe; As already mentioned, all the celestial bodies are divided into two groups: the Centzon Mimixcoa to the north and the Centzon Huitznahuac to the south; the four hundred serpents or four hundred southern ones, that is, the innumerable stars, and Coyolxauhqui, the Moon, who were brothers of Huitzilopochtli, whom he killed at birth. And thirteen heavens are recognized (the number of heavens was set at thirteen because it is the great supreme number of the calendar), which were made up as follows:

• Ilhuícatl-Meztli: the one of the stars;
• Ilhuícatl-Tetlalíloc: it is inhabited by the Tzimime, who are celestial demons or female stars that try to prevent the sun from being born during eclipses;
• Ilhuícatl-Tonatiuh: Tezcatlipoca (god of the night and of all material things) and those in charge of guarding the heavens;
• Ilhuícatl-Huitztlán: there are the souls of the sacrificed warriors that are transformed into precious birds;
• Ilhuícatl-Mamaloaco: that of the fire serpents (comets);
• Ilhuícatl-Yayauhco: the sky where the winds are found in number four, one for each cardinal point;
• Ilhuícatl-Xoxoauhco: the one who shows his face during the day;
• Ilhuícatl-Nanatzcáyan: where obsidian knives creak;
• Ilhuícatl-Teoiztac: white region;
• Ilhuícatl-Teocozáuhco: yellow region;
• Ilhuícatl-Teotlatláuhco: red region;
• Ilhuícatl-Teteocán: it is the place where the gods take faces;
• Ilhuícatl-Omeyocán: residence of Ometeotl, lord of duality.

On a symbolic level, his vision of the sky can be interpreted as follows: the Sun born from a sacrifice crosses the sky from East to West, with its masculine and feminine procession, passing through the noon where it reigns, reaches the west and sinks into the abode of the dead, where the world is delivered to the fearsome powers of twilight and the arrows of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli; only the moon shines as a symbol of fertility, and over the summit of the universe reigns the old primordial couple.

Researchers and scholars of the Mexica culture

Century XVIFray Bernardino de Sahagún, Fray Toribio de Benavente ("Motolinia"), Fray Diego de Durán, Diego Muñoz Camargo, Fray Juan de Torquemada.XVII centuryHernando de Alvarado Tezozómoc, Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, Francisco de San Antón Muñón Chimalpahin, Juan Bautista Pomar, Carlos de Sigüenza y GóngoraCentury XVIIILorenzo Boturini Benaducci, Francisco Xavier Clavijero.XIX centuryAlfredo Chavero, Manuel Gamio, Edward King Kinsborough, Antonio de León y Gama, Manuel Orozco y Berra, Francisco del Paso y Troncoso, Antonio Peñafiel..20th and 21st centuriesRobert Barlow, Frances Berdan, Ignacio Bernal, Woodrow Borah, Pedro Carrasco, Alfonso Caso, Víctor Manuel Castillo Farreras, Marco Antonio Cervera Obregón, Charles E. Dibble, Justino Fernández, Enrique Florescano, Ángel María Garibay Kintana, Ross Hassig, Joaquín Galarza, Paul Gendrop, Charles Gibson, Serge Gruzinski, Wigberto Jiménez Moreno, Friedrich Katz, Yuri Knorosov, Patrick Johansson, Miguel León-Portilla, James Lockhart, Alfredo López Austin, Leonardo López Luján, Ignacio Marquina, Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, Federico Navarrete Linares, Eduardo Noguera, Ángel Palerm, Esther Paztory, William T. Sanders, Laurette Séjourné, Eduard Georg Seler, Leonard Schultze-Jena, Michael E. Smith, Felipe Solís, Jacques Soustelle, Tzvetan Todorov, Paul Westheim.