Astures

The astures (astures in Latin) were a group of Celtic and pre-Celtic peoples who inhabited the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula and whose territory roughly included the autonomous community of Asturias, the province of León, to the west of the Esla river and that of Zamora to the north of the Duero and west of the Esla as well as the eastern area of Lugo and Orense and part of the Portuguese district of Braganza, all called Asturia.

It is considered that the origin and formation of this culture lies, among other aspects, in the mixture of an autochthonous population, whose origin is not very clear, with population groups that came from the Central European area. However, the ethnic group of this group does not seem clear, and most researchers are inclined to think that the name astures would only be a convention used by the Romans upon their arrival in the northwest of the peninsula..

These would be groups of local communities, organized according to the valleys and smaller units of the territory. This can be confirmed in the singularities presented by the ceramic decorations of the Iron Age that denote regional particularities. Of doubtful linguistic affiliation, there is a clear presence of terms related to the Indo-European Celtic group.

Through the classical texts we know about some of their tribes, such as the pesicos, the sharks or the gigurros. Their neighbors were the Galicians, Cantabrians and Vacceos. Some of the Asturian features have been preserved, such as the dense and dispersed settlement system based on self-sufficient villages, the collective exploitation of the land or communal traditions.

Location

Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula.

Languages on the Iberian peninsula in 300 a. C.

Linguistic families of the Iberian peninsula before romanization
C1: Galaicos / C2b: Cars / C3: Cabins / C4: Astures / C5: Vacclesias / C6: Turmois / C7: Autrigones-Caristios / C8: Várdulos / C9: Berones / C10: Pelendons / C11: Belos / C12: Lunch / C13: Titos / C14: Olcades / C15: Carpetians / C17: Vetons

Located in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, the Astures mainly occupied the current provinces of León and a large part of Zamora, the eastern ends of Lugo and Orense in Galicia, most of the Principality of Asturias, from the Sella River down the east, where they bordered on the Cantabrian towns, to the river Navia to the west, where they bordered on the albiones and the area of Trás-os-Montes in the District of Braganza (Portugal).

Its two main nuclei (oppidum) were Noega, near Gijón, and Lancia, in the municipality of Villasabariego, a few kilometers from León, as Dion Casio said.

Classic fonts

Excavations at the Castro de San Chuis (Pola de Allande).

The Astures are cited in classical sources on several occasions.

Firstly Strabo:

“To the east side the kallaikoi limit with the astours and with the Iberians and the others [carpetans, vetons and vacceos] with the keltíbres”

(Strabon, Geographia III, 4, 12.)

and which narrates the military expedition of Junius Brutus in 138-136 B.C. C..

Floro, in his Epitome rerum romanarum:

In the west, almost all Hispania was pacified except the one that bathed the Cyterior Ocean and touched the mountains of the extremity of the Pyrenees. Here were two very strong villages still unsubmitted, the cantabris and the astures.

Pliny the Elder quotes us some of his tribes:

The following are the twenty-two villages of the astures, divided into augustano astures and transmontan astures, with Asturica, a magnificent city: among them are the gigurros, the pésicos, the Lancienses and the Zelas.

Natural History, III, 28.

Already at a later time Saint Isidore also names them in his works:

Astures, the village of Hispania, so called because they surround the river Esla (Astura), live protected by their lush forests and forests.

Etymology

First of all, it is likely that the ethnonym Astures, Estures or Stures originally designated one of the many peoples who cultural affinity formed the tribe of the astures, later and by extension to call this group of peoples, as occurred among the Galicians with the Kallaekos.

In any case, there seems to be no doubt that the Astures received their name as they inhabited the banks of the Astura (Esla) river. The etymology makes Astura start from the root Steu-r (broad, wide), which applied to a river current would acquire the meaning of "difficult step". In addition to being a propitious adjective to designate the most important river in the Asturian area, it does not present any linguistic objection.

The same root is preserved in Sanskrit Sthura (wide, dense), Avestan Stura (broad, extensive), Germanic Stur (broad), Icelandic Stura, and various forms of German and Anglo-Saxon Stieren, Stiuri, Stiura, Stiure, Steuer, Steor, etc. Although words derived from this root are not easily found in current Celtic languages, it must have been in common use in Gaulish based on the number of hydronyms recorded: in Brittany, Pliny the Elder glossed Stur and a Sturia at the mouth of the Elbe. The Cisalpine Gaul was home to the Esturos tribe and the Stura river.

Today there are three rivers Stour in Kent, Suffolk and Dorset (in ancient times known as Stura) and another Stura in Cisalpine Gaul a tributary of the river Po, in addition to the Esla (Astura) and Astuera (ancient Sturia) in the council of Colunga (Asturias). All of them are the result of natural evolution in Celtic, which converts the diphthong -eu first to -ou and then to -u (Teutates > Touta > Tutatis).

Regarding the name itself, the form astures has traditionally been used, while José Luis Moralejo published a study in 1977 in which he argued that the correct pronunciation of the term would be accentuating the first syllable: according to him, we would have ástur, ástura and ástures.

History

The beginning of this culture dates back to the 6th century BC. C., being able to be in relation to the confrontation between the oestrimnios and the saefes, according to Avieno account. The saefes were the first Celtic people to arrive in Galicia in the 11th century BC. C., and subdued the Oestrymnian people, but this influenced the first, especially in the field of religion, political organization and maritime relations with Britain and Ireland. Their eminently warrior character made Strabo say of them that they were the most difficult to defeat in all of Lusitania.

Roman military operations carried out during the Cantabrian wars.

Sociopolitical organization

Tribes

Roman authors such as Pliny the Elder or Pomponio Mela and Greek authors such as Strabo speak of two main groups separated by the Cantabrian mountain range: the Augustan Astures (or Cismontanos), with their capital in Asturica (Astorga, León), whose domains reached as far as the Duero, and the Transmontano Astures, which stretched between the Sella and Navia rivers.

Pliny the Elder cites 22 towns in the Conventus Asturum and a population of about 240,000 people. For his part, Ptolemy speaks of 21 cities and 10 towns.

Transmontanes

Location map of the transmontan astures.

• Pésicos: they spread through the western region of Asturias, between the rivers Nalón (Nailos or Melsos) and Eo, limiting with the galaicos and cibarcos to the west, with the luggones to the east and with the astures cismontanos to the south, in the present lioness regions of Babia, Omaña and Laciana. They had their main core in Flavionavia (near the current Santianes de Pravia).

• Argamonics: clan of the Persians

• Orniacos: they occupied the Valle del Huerna basin in the Council of Lena in Asturias. One of its most important cities or castro (castello) was Intercatia is known to us by the epitaph of Pintaius Pedicili F, which was symbolifer of the Cohors V Asturum in the middle of the 1st century in Germania near the current Bonn. CIL XIII 8098, Bonn (Germany): Pintaius Pedicili/ f(ilius) Astur Trans/montanus castel(lo)/ Intercatia signifer/ c(o)ho(ortis) V Asturum/ anno(rum) XXX stip(endiorum) VII/ h(eres) ex t(estamento) f(aciendum) c(uravit).
• Luggones: occupied the area between the Nalon (Nailos) and the Sella (Salia), border zone with the cantabris. Two epigraphs are preserved in this area: Luggones Arganticanos, in Grases (Villaviciosa), and inscription Asturu(m) et Luggonu(m) (the toponymous Lugones still remains unchanged in the population of that name located near Oviedo.)

• Ablaidacos: Luggons clan, in Piloña.

• Abilicos: clan of the Luggons, in Castandiello, Morcín.

• Agubrigens

• Arganticanos: clan of the Luggons, in Argandenes, Piloña

• Argatory

• Arronidaecos

• Cabrangines

• Every book

• Cilaridos o Oilaridos: clan in Oles, Villaviciosa.

• Cilurnigos: clan of the Luggones, inhabited the area in which the Campa Torres is located, where the castro of Noega is located.

• Coliacinos

• Rats

• Vinci

• Viromenigos

• Penios: occupied the coastal area east of the Sella River (Salia), border area with the luggons and the orgenomescos.

• Quetianos

• Caelionicaecos

Augusans

Terminus Augustalis delimiting the prata of the Cohors IV Gallorum with the territory of the city of Bedunia and the Luggones, carried out in 41-42 under Claudio. Castrocalbón (León).

• Amacos (Amaci): They occupied the central area of León, between the Tuerto and Órbigo rivers. According to the classical sources, its capital was Asturica, the current Astorga.

• Bedunienses or Bedunios: located north of the Brigaecinos and the Luggones, its most important population was Bedunia or Bedunium, in San Martín de Torres, near La Bañeza.
• Luggons (Luggoni): located in the valley of the river Duerna, In Castrocalbón and Santa Colomba de la Vega there were numerous august terms that defined the territory of the Cohors IV Gallorum regarding the Luggones. to the west and the Bedunienses to the east.

• Brigaecinos or Brigantinos: located north of Brigaecium (Source of Ropel or Benavente) its most important city, which appears mentioned during the bellum asturicum. According to various authors his betrayal of the rest of the Asture peoples would play an important role in the victory of Rome.^{[chuckles]required]}

• Cabruagénigos (Cabruagenigorum): Although no specific information is available, it is very likely that they gave rise to the current region of La Cabrera, in the south-west of León, both at the toponymic and cultural levels. This tribe was related to the Zoelas, but although it formed its own gene, both tribes belonged to the Civitas Zoelarum, in which the gens of the Zoelas predominated.
  Main article: Cabruagénigos

• Gigurros (Gigurri): Located next to the Sil River, they occupied the eastern area of the current Orense (the region of Valdeorras) and the southwest area of El Bierzo, in the present Lion, between the rivers Bibey and Cabrera. Its most important core was Forum Gigurrorum.

• Iburros: located between the provinces of Orense and Zamora.

• Lancienses: located in the eastern part of the Leoness province, very close to the city of León, its great core was Lancia, next to the present Villasabariego. The defeat of Lancia, situated on flat land, did not mean the end of the Cantabrian wars, since astures and cantabris were retreating to the abrupt lands of the north where they offered their true resistance to the Romans.

• Lougueos (Lougei): located in the area of Los Ancares, in El Bierzo (Leon), east of Lugo.

• SaelinosSaelini), Selmas or Selmares: occupied the area of the port of Pajares, having as capital to Nardirium.

• Superatios (Superati): located in the north of the province of Zamora. Its most important core was Petavonium (Rosinos de Vidriales).

• Susarros: located on the left bank of the river Sil at its pass by Paemeiobriga (Bembibre). They appear referenced in the Bronze of Bembibre and rewarded by Emperor Augustus for his fidelity.

• Sharks (Tiburi): located in the region of Puebla de Trives (Orense), its capital would be Nemetobriga.

• Zoelas.Zoelae): border with the galaics, they would occupy the current border area between Zamora and Trás-os-Montes (Portugal), with center in Curunda.

Lifestyle

Society

According to classical authors, the family structure was matrilineal, where the woman inherited and was the owner. Strabo tells us that among the Astures, the man endowed the woman, the daughters inherited and were the ones who gave wives to their brothers. Until not long ago these features, considered as manifestations of matriarchy, have been preserved in Asturian territory, such as the custom of the covada, which consisted of the woman giving birth and continuing with her daily tasks, while the man stayed in bed caring for the newborn.

All the mountaineers make a simple life, drinking water, sleeping on the ground and wearing long hair like women... They take their meals sitting, making rock banks around the wall. The food is served in turn. During the drink they dance in wheel accompanied by flute and horn or also making jumps and genuflexiones... They usually wear black layers and sleep on birds wrapped in them. Women wear sayos and dresses with floral ornament. They use wooden containers, such as the Celts, they fire death rows, and the Parricides stone them outside the city or the confine... They put the sick by the paths, as the Egyptians did in the past, in order to consult the travellers who had suffered a similar evil. His salt is red, but he becomes white. Such is the life of the mountaineers, that is, as I have said of the towns that occupy the northern side of Iberia: the Galaicos and Astures and Cantabris to the Vascones and the Pyrenees. Since the life of all of them is identical... The hidden and savage character of those peoples is explained not only by their warrior life, but also by their remote situation... Also the territory of some with their poverty and mountains should have increased such lack of culture. No one will say that those who wash with urine live with a toilet, that is kept rotten in tinajas and with them they shuffle their teeth and their wives, as it is also said of the Cantabris and their neighbors. This and sleeping on the ground is proper to both the Ibers and the Celts.

Strange. Geography, 3, 3, 7 and 8.

They wore tight-fitting tunics, a general custom in all the Cantabrian tribes. To make them they used the black wool of the xaldas sheep, a native breed. The women decorated them with colorful vegetable substances. Meanwhile, the footwear would be similar to the current madreñas. They had great knowledge of the natural environment, using medicinal plants.

They used sewn leather boats where only the keel was made of wood, similar to those used by Galicians, Lusitanians, Irish, Bretons and Saxons.

Economy

The Astures based their subsistence on livestock, with less importance on agriculture that they practiced non-intensively. The sown lands during the pre-Roman era were scarce. From these crops they obtained barley with which they made beer, as well as primitive species of wheat (such as spelt) and flax. Due to the scarcity of their agricultural production and their strong warrior character, they made frequent incursions into the lands of the Vacceos, who had highly developed agriculture. For much of the year they used the llande as their main food, drying and crushing it to make bread with its flour that was kept for a long time.

There is evidence within the Asturian territory of commercial contacts with the Atlantic areas (already from ancient times) based on the exploitation of mineral resources. This favored the formation of warrior elites that controlled this trade on a large scale. Their villages were self-sufficient, supplying themselves with agricultural resources and making the manufactured products they might need.

Housing

Teito (construction similar to the old astured dwellings) located on Lake Valle, in Somiedo.

Initially (7th century BC), the towns were built by groupings of dwellings made with plant materials, to later (500-100 BC) appear circular stone houses, walls and defenses. Finally, the habitat is organized in the forts, located in strategic places, walled and with moats.

The cabins were round in plan (as in Campa Torres and the Castiellu de Llagú fort) or elliptical without angles (as in the Picu Castiellu in Moriyón), with a vegetal roof that was supported without internal columns. The cabins were crowded together, giving way to narrow, impassable streets. Similar to reconstructed houses in Wales (as at Castell Henllys and St. Fagans) and Ireland (Wexford), they had a stone plinth and walls of mud-covered weave of sticks on which some form of insulation would have been superimposed.

The houses tend to be rectangular as you go east and the influences from Central Europe and the Mediterranean become stronger. Celtiberian influences find some resistance in the area; they spread to the western and northern regions with which they shared the same social and economic substratum, but this process was interrupted with the arrival of Rome.

Warriors

Gold asturk found in Labra (sss. IV–II a.C., M.A.N., Madrid)

A people with a strong warrior character, they had the dart as their main weapon. They used a shield or caetra, both small and large. They also used the dagger, short sword with antennae, double-edged axe, heel axe, tube-sleeved spear, solid bracelet with incised decoration, rings, sling, as well as the falcata, possibly used due to the influences of other peninsular peoples.. As elements of personal prestige linked to the warrior class were the torques.

During the Cantabrian Wars they faced Rome in alliance with the Cantabrians, practicing guerrilla warfare, carrying out ambushes and maneuvering in narrow valleys and steep slopes where they fought on horseback. Their cavalry was famous, with their Asturcone horses, and once they were dominated by Rome, they were recruited as auxiliary troops. Thus, at Hadrian's Wall, built to the north of present-day Great Britain to protect its territories from invasions by the Picts, there is evidence of 2 wings of Asturian cavalry. A funerary stele has also been found in the German city of Bonn, dedicated to Pintaius, an Asturian citizen standard bearer of a Roman cohort.

Regarding the archaeological record, Asturia was within the area of influence of the Atlantic Arc, which during the Late Bronze Age maintained important commercial contacts. A common characteristic throughout the Atlantic area is the discovery of accumulations of metal pieces without an archaeological context and that seem to be related to votive offerings in natural sites with a sacred character. This is the case of swords found in rivers such as the Esla or the Órbigo. As a curious fact, a carp tongue sword was found in Paradela de Muces, supposedly stuck in a rock.