Arabic alphabet

The Arabic alphabet, also known as «alifato» in Spanish (from alif, its first letter), is the script used in various languages of the world, such as Arabic, Persian and Urdu. It is the second most widespread alphabet in the world, only behind the Latin alphabet.

There are different standardized systems for romanizing Arabic, that is, adapting the Arabic alphabet to Latin or Roman. For example, the SATTS (in English, Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System - Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System) is a system used to adapt the Arabic alphabet to the Latin for English speakers adopted by the United States Army.

The aliphat has characteristics similar to the Hebrew alphabet, in this sense it is an abyad. This refers to the fact that short vowels are not transcribed in most books and publications, but have to be deduced from the context. This situation is alleviated by the fact that Semitic languages put most of their meaning in consonants and long vowels, which are transcribed. It has 28 basic letters, with some variants and various auxiliary signs.

Modern Arabic script dates from the 4th century and is called Nasji to differentiate it from the earlier, more rounded Kufic script from Kufa. It is a linked and cursive script, rather than a succession of individual characters. In addition to other consequences, this implies that the shape of the letter is influenced by the position it occupies in the word. It is written from right to left; It does not have capital letters and the division of the word at the end of the line is not allowed; instead, it is possible to lengthen the joining strokes between letters as much as you want, so that the text is aligned. Double consonants are indicated by a tashdid, (a 'w'-like symbol) above the letter in question.

The Qur'an, the most important book in Islam, is written using the Arabic alphabet. In addition to the Arabic language, there are several languages that use this same alphabet, including Urdu and Persian; Turkish was written with aliphato until Kemal Atatürk's reforms in the 1920s. This was officially reinstated by Erdogan's Turkish government in 2014, although only for religious purposes. Some Aragonese and Castilian Muslims from the 14th to the 16th centuries wrote works, mainly religious, in the Romance language with Arabic characters (what is known as aljamiada literature).

Arabic calligraphy is considered an art in its own right. Since Sunni Islam forbids the depiction of animate beings, Islamic architecture (mosques and palaces) often uses delicately written verses from the Qur'an. An example is the palace of the Alhambra in Granada.

History

The Arabic alphabet can be traced back to the Nabatean alphabet used to write the Nabatean dialect of the Aramaic languages.

The Phoenician people used, more than three thousand years ago in the region of Canaan, the Phoenician alphabet, which quickly spread. Over time a part evolved into the Greek alphabet, which in turn became the Latin alphabet, used by most European languages. Another branch gave rise to the Aramaic alphabet, from which the Arabic alphabet would emerge.

Fellowship
Aramaic
Nabateo
Syria
Arab	♫		ح	د	ه	و	ر	ح	Target	OVERVIEW	.

Fellowship
Aramaic
Nabateo
Syria
Arab	.	م		-	ع		FIC		ر	س

Languages that use the Arabic alphabet

Each of the languages that use this alphabet has its own version, usually with additional letters.

• Arab: is the most important and widespread, official in 24 countries, 2 units and 4 international organizations. However, there is an important differentiation between classical or cult Arabic, and the different forms of dialectal or popular Arabic that is the very evolution of the language.
• Persian: Official in 3 countries.
• Urdu: Officer in 1 country.
• Pasta: Officer in 1 country.
• Kurd: Officer in 1 country.
• Uigur: Official in an autonomous region, Xinjiang in China.

Historicals

• The Turkish He used this alphabet from the 13th century to the orthographic reforms promoted by the government of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the 1920s. From then on he went on to use the Latin alphabet.
• The suajili used the Arabic alphabet until the 18th century. Since then it has been written in Latin alphabet due to European colonization and influence.
• La aljamy or alyamía it is the writing with Arabic characters of other languages, and in Spanish it refers mainly to the Arabic texts of Romance languages of the Iberian Peninsula, mainly between the 14th and 16th centuries, in the crowns of Castile and Aragon.
• The Malaysian language He used it until the Latin alphabet displaced it in everyday use after the arrival of European settlers, currently the alifate in his jawi variant is used in the Muslim religious sphere.

Letters

Graphemes and phonemes

Primary characters

In the past, the Arabic alphabet was established in a different order:

In addition to the traditional transcriptions in the table above, there are various other systems adapted to each language, or of the SAMPA type, in which, for example, ح is transcribed as 7, ع as 3 etc.

Reading

Global use of the Arab alphabet
	→	Countries where Arabic writing is the only official spelling
	→	Countries where Arabic writing is officially used together with other spellings.

The most commonly used alphabet today, called hiŷā'ī (هِجَائِي) or alifbā'ī (أَلِفْبَائِي), groups letters by graphic similarity. Many graphemes have the same basic line and are distinguished from each other by points located above or below the line. These points were incorporated at the time of Islamic expansion: until then, writing was used little and frequently as a kind of shorthand for personal use to prepare records, contracts, delivery notes, etc. The needs linked to the administration of the new Islamic State, as well as the correct transmission of the Koran, made it necessary to improve the writing system. The letters represent consonants or long vowels. If necessary, additional diacritics can be used to represent the short vowels. These signs are used above all in didactic texts and in writings whose correct vocalization is considered especially important, such as the Koran. In fact, they were invented precisely to ensure the correct transmission of the holy book, especially among non-Arab Muslims.

In case vowel diacritics are not used, which is the case in most texts, for a correct reading the reader must know the word or deduce its vocalization from its morphology and from the context. This is a feature common to all Semitic alphabetic scripts. Examples:

• The word KTB (كتب) can be read kataba (he wrote), kutiba (written) or kutub (books). It will be the context that gives the clues for the correct reading.
• The word 'STKTB (استكتب) can only be read istaktaba (he asked someone to write), because it is the only possible vocalization according to the rules of morphology for words with the form 'ST123 (where the numbers indicate the three consonants of the root of the word, in this case KTB, "write").

Long vowels can be deduced from the presence of the semiconsonants ي (Y) and و (W), which are usually attached to the short vowels i and u to give the corresponding lengths, and by the alif sign (ا), which generally represents the long vowel a, although word-initially it can represent any vowel.

With very few exceptions, each grapheme corresponds to a phoneme, that is, there are no silent letters or letters that in certain positions, or joined to others, have a different value from the one that corresponds to them in principle.

In spoken Arabic dialects, some letters have several different values than they do in Classical Arabic. Many times, these local pronunciation idiosyncrasies are maintained when the speaker tries to use standard Arabic, so they are indicated in the description section of the letters. But it should be made clear that Standard Arabic has a standard pronunciation, which is the one taught in schools and is universally considered the best. Thus, despite the fact that many Egyptians will pronounce [ʔalbek] instead of [qalbuk] when speaking at home, any Arabic TV announcer, whether Egyptian or from another country, will always pronounce the letter qaf as a uvular plosive.

Letters

Typewriter with Arabic keyboard.

In the Arabic script, the letters of the same word are always written linked to each other, except for 6 letters that cannot be connected with the next letter (although they can be connected with the previous one), which requires leaving a small space between them; these 6 letters that do not connect are: alif (ا), dāl (د), ḏāl (ذ), rā' (ر), zāy (ز) and wāu (و).

• Alf (un): It does not have a certain sound. It can support an initial vowel, a hamza, represent a vowel a long, or serve as an orthographic mark for certain ends. It does not bind to the next letter (although yes to the previous one) and only has one form, the vertical stroke.
• Ba' (ب): It is a simple horizontal stroke with a point below. It is the sound /b/ in Spanish at the beginning of the word. It is read as the letter b in Boat.
• Ta' (cases): It is written as the previous one but with two points above and has no point below. Sounds like the t in Spain atar.
• Tha' (taxation): It represents the sound of a deaf dental fricative consonant ([θ]), such as that of the z of the majority of Spain peninsular pray, areaor as the English sound th of think. In certain dialects, such as Moroccan, it is usually pronounced just like ta'. It is written as the previous two but with three points above.
• Đim or JIM (chuckles): Sounds like the French j Or, stronger, like the English. It is drawn as a eyebrow with a lower point, with a semicircular end stroke if it goes in final or isolated position. In the Egyptian dialect and other local varieties it is pronounced as g oclusive in fool.
• Ḥa' (rat): It is written in all equal to the previous letter but without the lower point. It represents a non-existent sound in most of the Spanish dialects, an aspiration made in the faringe, which produces an intermediate sound impression between a [h] and a [x].
• Đa' (sometimes in Spanish) Ja') (Principal): It is written as the previous two but with the point above the letter and not inside it. Represents the sound of the letter j of Spanish in its strong realization ([x]) as in Juan, Jorge and Jaime, although it is usually pronounced something stronger in Arabic.
• Dal (د): Represents the sound d Spanish at the beginning of the word, as in the first d of debt. It does not join with the next letter and only has one form.
• alal (thousand): It represents the sound similar to that of the second d of debt in Spanish, or th English this. It is written in all the same as the previous letter (dal) but with a point above; as this one does not join with the letter that follows it. It is frequently pronounced as the zay or as the spoken Arabic dal.
• Ra' (session): Represents the sound r in face. It has the form of a simple downward stroke. It does not join with the next letter and only has one form.
• Zay (au): It is written as the previous one but with a point on top. His sound is the one s sound, like the z English zooFrench, "Zéro" or "maiSon" or the phone s in the word from in his unsuspecting pronunciation. It does not join with the following letter.
• No (resolution): Represents the sound of s. Its main path is two valleys, having a final stroke down in case of final or isolated position.
• Shin (ش): Represents the sound of x Catalan, sh English, sch German, sci Italian, or ch French and Portuguese. It is written as the previous one but with three points on top.
• gnashing (FI): It is a sound similar to the s but pronounced in a special way, which is called emphatically. These empathic lyrics are pronounced with the back of the tongue somewhat higher than normal, which modifies the clutter of the vowels of the environment obscure them a little, and even affects other consonants of the environment.
• ad (EX): Its sound is a d emphatic. It is in its form equal to the previous letter but with a point on top. The Arabic language was called dead languagebecause it was traditionally thought that this sound was unique to Arabic, although it is actually also given in other unfamiliar languages.
• 50€' (target): Its sound is a t absolutely deaf. It only has one way.
•  (spread): Your sound is a d enf or s sonora enf; this sound has disappeared from most of today's spoken dialects. It is an interdental fonema that is done by placing the tongue between the teeth and uttering a dBut also making her emphatic. It is in its form equal to the previous letter, but with a point on top. In the dialects of the Maghreb it is usually pronounced as TEDad.
• ¶¶ (ع): No Spanish equivalent. It is a sound cold pharyngeal sound produced by pharynx constriction.
• latitudeayn (PH): There is no sound in Spanish, since it is a sound similar to the g in exhausted, is much stronger (fricative and non-approximate). It looks like the r French gutural. It has the same form as the previous letter but with a point on it.
• Fa' (ف): Sounds like f. It is represented with a small ring with a point on top, with a final stroke forward for the final or isolated position. In the Magreb you can still find in century writingsXIX and XX the letter fa' with the point below the letter (.) representing the sign ف the qaf.
• Qaf (ق): One could approach k in Spanish pronounced in the úvula. His writing is equal to the previous one, with two points instead of one, except for the final stroke when it has it, which is done below the line. In many dialects it is pronounced with the sound of the occlusive vocal attack of hamza, and in others as a sound qaf []] or a g occlusive [g].
• Kaf (ك): Sound of c in house or k in kilo. It has two different optional forms when it is in final position.
• Lam (To be): Represents the sound l. It is written as a vertical stroke, and differs from the alif in which the lam does join with the following. When followed by an alif, the لا ligature is mandatory, called lam-alif.
• Mim (and): Sound m.
• Nun (Country): Sound n. In the beginning and inside of the word is written as the group of the ba, ta' and κa', differing only by having a point above; instead the final and isolated forms come below the line.
• Ha' (ه): Soft vacuum sound, such as pronunciation j of the regions of southern Spain and the Caribbean area, or h English and German aspiration. Its forms according to initial, mean, final or isolated are noticeably different. Along with the two points of the ta' forms the tā browsing marbūṭa (Here), which in Arabic generally indicates the female gender.
• Waw (و): It only has one form and does not join with the following letter. As a consonant represents a semi-vocal like the u in bone; can serve to denote a vowel u long or support for hamza.
• Ya' (whether): It is written as ba, ta', κa' and nun in initial and inner position, but it has its own form if it is isolated or final. As a consonant represents a semiconsonant like the i in earth; as a vowel, denote i long, or can serve as a support for hamza. It has the ى variant, called alif maqsura and is used as termination; it is then pronounced as a a Long.

Auxiliary graphemes

Pages of the Quran, the diacritics serve to transcribe all sounds and thus avoid misinterpretations

• Hamza (hundred): it is an auxiliary graph of the Arabic alphabet, hybrid between lyrics and diacritic; it denotes what is called a 'vocálico' attack or a 'glotal high', an occlusive glotal sound similar to what the Spaniards can do by saying "look at Anna", if we want to separate the sounds a between the three words to understand well. These little pauses are like hamza glottal strokes. Depending on your situation in the word, you will appear without support, or mounted on an alif a waw or an already'. In spoken Arabic it usually disappears.
• Shádda (PDF): indicates the gemination or long amount of the consonant on which it is written.
• Tanwin (Romans):): it consists of adding a final nun to a noun or adjective that usually indicates that it is totally declinable and syntactically indetermined. However, certain self-names, which are semantically defined substantives, come from originally undetermined nouns and therefore retain the nunation. e.g.: مقددة, Muḥammadun"Mahoma."

Short vowels:

• Fatḥah.فуتحة:: is a small diagonal line placed on a letter, and represents a short and low vowel, similar to [a]. The word fatḥah means opening and refers to the greater opening of the mouth when producing this vowel. Example with the dāl consonant:.دу. /da/.
• Kasrah.ك贸سرtó.: is a diagonal line similar to the fatḥah but placed under the letter instead of on it. The word kasrah means rupture. This sign represents a short, previous and high vowel, similar to [i]. Example with the dāl consonant:.دι. /di/.
• .ammah. comunicatóمة:: is a small snail shaped snatch similar to the wāw letter, placed on top of a letter; it represents a short, later and high vowel, similar to [u]. Example with the dāl consonant:.دُ /du/.

Special spellings

• Lam-alif (even): ligature formed by lam followed by alif. If in a word these two letters appear in that order, it is obligatory to represent them with ligature.
• tā browsing marbūṭa (Here): it is a variant of the ta' letter that is only used at the end of the words, usually denoting the termination of female. In modern Arabic represents the final sound /-a/ and, when in construct state, /-at/.
• alif maqsura (Link): variant of the alif that appears in certain words, always at the end.
• alif madda (growth): equals an alif with hamza but represents a long and not short vowel.

Proposal to reform writing

In any case, reading requires a certain degree of understanding of the text and knowledge of grammar. For this reason, a small group of academics proposed in the 1920s to adopt the Latin alphabet, just as Turkey had done, arguing that "other peoples read to understand; we must understand to be able to read". This was officially reinstated by the Turkish government in 2014, but only for the confessional sphere. The proposal was dismissed, but the debate on the extent to which this writing system hindered literacy remained open. Today there is a greater tendency to think that literacy problems are primarily economic and political, since it does not seem to present any difficulties in Israel, which has a similar writing system, nor in countries like China or Japan, as long as one counts with the necessary means and political will of each individual.

Arabic numerals

There are three types of numerals in the Arabic script; on the one hand are the oriental numerals, divided into: Arabic, which is used throughout the Mashreq, and Persian, used in the Arabic script of Iran, Pakistan and India. On the other hand, there are the so-called Arabic numerals, commonly used in most of the world, which are used in the Maghreb countries. They all come from India, at different times.