Apache
Apache is the name given to a group of culturally close indigenous nations in eastern Arizona, northwestern Mexico (northern states of Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas), New Mexico, and regions of Texas and the Great Plains. The term apache probably comes from the Zuni apachu, meaning 'enemy'; hence the name that the Spanish gave them. They called themselves Diné, which means 'the people'. They spoke a set of Southern Athabascan languages, which have been classified as Plains Apache, Eastern Apache, and Western Apache.
They were fishermen, hunters, and farmers. They lived in small family-based groups. The groups were formed with several families of matriarchal character. They shared the same rite of the Sioux and the Cheyennes.
When the Spanish arrived, the Apaches had reached the southwestern United States and northern Mexico on a migration of about 500 years from Canada. It was a powerful and warlike tribe, in continuous struggle both with the colonizers of European origin and with other Indian tribes. The surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, when the Chiricahuas were deported to Florida and Alabama, where they were under military confinement. They always showed great fierceness as warriors and great skill as strategists.
In the year 1900, about 17,000 Apaches lived in the wild. Their best-known chief, Geronimo (Gokhlayeh), was born in 1829 and died of natural causes at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, in 1909. He succeeded Cochise, who lived 62 years as chief of the Apaches.. He was Cochise's son, Taza, who appointed Geronimo as his father's successor. They are now found on reservations in Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma at numbers between 5,500 and 6,000. A small minority of 20 Mescalero Apaches still subsist on the northern border of the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Sonora, and Coahuila.[< i>citation required]
History
General characteristics
Linguistically they belong to the Atapascan family, like their Navajo brethren. The Apaches lived semi-nomadic and unstable in a certain place between the Colorado and Brazos rivers in Texas. They were characterized by strong cultural resistance as a group. They were great explorers and knew perfectly their vast territory, which they always defended tenaciously. They were hunters and gatherers of wild products, they became invaders of pastoral and agricultural lands of other indigenous groups, they bartered and practiced pillage to subsist. supplies and food and the Apaches applied this system also to the European settlers who settled there.
Fights with the Spanish and Comanches
The first corroborated contacts with Europeans, Spanish, took place at the end of the XVI century. In 1598, Juan de Oñate, upon taking possession of the lands of New Mexico, ordered the division of their populations to reduce the Apaches; He sent Fray Francisco de Zamora as the person in charge of evangelizing these, who lived in the extreme north of New Spain and to the west of the Sierra Nevada, in California; Later, he ordered Christianized Aztec and Otomi indigenous people to be brought from the center of the New Spain provinces to achieve a better understanding with the Apache peoples. The effort was in vain: the Apaches and other indigenous tribes did not allow themselves to be subdued and decided to burn and destroy many Spanish towns in the northern territories of New Spain. The Apaches supported the Pueblo Indians in fighting the Spanish in 1599.
The relationship from the beginning and in the XVII century saw a series of battles and raids undertaken by the two groups The Apaches searched for cattle and horses —animals they had learned to ride— and the Spanish retaliated and captured slaves, despite the fact that the Crown had prohibited it. The last decades of this century corresponded to the splendor of the group, which at the beginning of the following century they began to be displaced by the Comanches, who came from the north and were pushed in their migration by the Sioux. -caps;text-transform:lowercase">XVIII caused clashes with the Spanish of the Viceroyalty of New Spain to increase.
Never politically united, the Apaches were divided into different groups, which changed over time. Some of them, like the so-called Lipans and Jicarillas, came to settle and raise cattle, but the majority were hunters and gatherers. The territory through which they roamed was known as Apachería, some 660,000 square kilometers that covered the eastern part of the state of Arizona, a large part of New Mexico, the southeast of Colorado, the west of Oklahoma, a notable part of Texas, and the northern zone of the states of Sonora, Chihuahua and Coahuila. In the middle of the XIX century, there were an estimated eight thousand, although some authors calculate a higher figure, thirty thousand.
The first document that mentions the existence of the Apaches was written in Taos in 1702 and in 1720 an Apache embassy arrived there requesting permission to settle in the territory; the Spanish governor granted it, beginning a long and difficult process of settlement, since other towns already installed there did not feel much sympathy towards them.
Mexican Period and American Expansion
In 1825, the Mexican government began a second period to pacify the Apaches and unify them into united populations, which was a great failure for the Mexican intermediaries. With the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo of 1848, signed by Mexico and the United States, the Apache territory was divided between the two States, which caused the separation of the group and great discontent with both governments. The Apaches spread across the lands of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Chihuahua, Sonora, Coahuila, Durango, and Zacatecas.
During the Anglo-American colonization of the new territories of the American West, they constituted a major obstacle to being able to colonize as far as the Pacific coast. The Apaches used firearms and horses to kill anyone who entered their territories. Many Spaniards, Mexicans, and Anglo-Americans died at the hands of the Apaches. In 1821, a stage known as the Indian wars began, which ended with the surrender of Gerónimo, the last leader of the resistance, who came from the Chiricahua tribe.
The Mexican government tried to annihilate Gerónimo, made a pact with him, and then betrayed him by killing his family. Geronimo attacks and burns the Mexican border forts. The United States government also persecutes him and tries to subdue him, killing his second wife. He was eventually confined to Florida Indian reservations and died in Oklahoma in 1909.
In 1928 the Mexican government officially declared the Apache ethnic group extinct in Mexican territory and the 3,000 people who survived on US soil were finally subjected to reservations in the states of Arizona, New Mexico and Oklahoma.
Apache Wars Controversy
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There are no written records of the reasons for migrating from Canada. There are indigenous testimonies where it is stated that they were engaged in looting and depredation, especially the Lipans who had absorbed several Coahuilteco groups, without really knowing this exactly. At the time of the arrival of the first Europeans, the Spanish, the ethnic groups of the place were aggressive against the Apaches and told of their multiple attacks, probably seeking to settle on more fertile lands.
At the beginning of the Spanish rule of the other tribes, they tried to evangelize them without success, in view of which they proceeded to establish the chain of prisons that tried to protect the area. As the success was minimal, the bribery system was established, by which the viceregal government supplied the different tribes to stop the attacks.
However, at the time of Mexican independence, both the prison system and the bribery system collapsed, and attacks resumed. These reached epic proportions in Chihuahua and Sonora, contributing to the war of American Intervention, and thanks to this the attacks spread.
After the war (1848), the attacks spread further south, reaching Sinaloa and Durango, while beginning in the new territories of New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas. Predation reached the point of entire populations being exterminated in different locations in Arizona, Sonora, and Chihuahua. Of special ferocity were the attacks in Cuencamé and surrounding areas, where all the inhabitants were exterminated. This provoked a response from both sides of the border, where the army was sent in to check the attacks, again with little success.
Local governments took control of the situation. In Chihuahua, Governor Ángel Trías offered 200 pesos for the hair of each indigenous person, this reduced the attacks in Chihuahua, reaching an agreement to end the hunt. The same model was followed in the United States. However, since these pacts were local or regional, they caused the attacks to stop in one place and continue in another. The clearest example is that of 1851, when Chihuahua held a peace pact with the northwestern tribes, several of them arriving to settle in Janos. However, the Apaches' own annals, as well as Gerónimo's autobiography, acknowledge that the camp was used as a base to attack the Sonora settlements. Given this, Governor Elías González pursued the indigenous people to Janos, exterminating them or capturing some of them back to Sonora. This particular event would resume the war for northern Mexico and the southwestern United States, which would continue until 1886.
It should be noted the logical difference between the narration of the same events from the three different points of view, American, Mexican and Apache. When analyzing the chronicles of the time, the motivations and justifications of a particular point of view must be taken into account. Thus, chroniclers of either party conveniently omit their crimes. The example of the attack on Janos is the clearest, where the three narratives of most of the chroniclers of the time are very partial in their appreciations, in view of which any reference material must be carefully analyzed. Even today these partial sources from the 19th century are used.
Religion
Today, most Apaches are adherents of Christianity, particularly Roman Catholicism. Apache pre-Hispanic mythology spoke of two mythological heroes. One is that of the sun/heat, facing the murderous monsters, the second is that of water/the moon/and thunder, son of Water, Born out of water, which is harmful to human beings. Other legends tell of a secret ball game in which good and evil animals played to decide whether the world should remain in eternal darkness or enter a new dawn. The legend of the coyote and the triksteris occupies an important place. The Navajo, Western Apache, Jicarilla, and Lipan Indians all have their legislative backgrounds, however this does not include the Chiricahuas and Mescaleros.
Some animals were demonized, as they could cause various diseases; among these were owls, snakes, bears, and coyotes.
The term Diyi' refers to one or a group of invisible forces that derive from a number of existing animals, plants, minerals, weather phenomena, and mythological creatures of the Western Apache universe.. Any of a variety of forces can win and one man can do it right, he can be used for various purposes.
In these ceremonies the sorcerers (shamans) were very aware of it, but it was possible, a direct manifestation of an individual. Rituals and their forms varied in the different Apache tribes. Many Chiricahua and Mescalera ceremonies were performed with what was learned during personal religious visions, while the Jicarilla and Western Apaches had standardized rituals. Girls' puberty (dawn dance) rituals and celebrations with Navajo songs were well established since ancient times among the Jicarilla Apaches of the llanos; the consecration ceremonies were among the most abundant rituals. Many ceremonial masks were used to represent religious spirits. The Navajos, Apaches, and Western Jicarillas have considerable religious knowledge and philosophy, including symbols they marked in the desert sand. The use of masks and sand painting is believed to have been borrowed from Pueblo culture.
Culture
Social organization
All Apaches lived in large families, where each family had its own dwelling. The extended family consisted of husband and wife, their sons not yet married, those who married their daughters, their sons who married other men's daughters, and each other's children. In this way, a group of united families formed a female lineage (matrilocal model) in which men were able to get married after leaving their parents' family. When a daughter marries, she and her husband put up new homes. The role of women in the organization of the village was very great. While in the southern part of the West there was also widespread matriarchy, sometimes the eldest son stayed with his wife to live with his parents. All tribes recognized free and religious marriage. From the time of pre-Columbian marriage there is a record that the chastity of women was spiritually and socially something of vital importance until they got married and menarche was celebrated with an animist ritual called naihes, which was a blessing for the young woman in her transition from girl to woman, with festivities that could last up to four days.
Some families worked together in local groups, which carried out certain ceremonies, trade, and warfare. This local group was headed by an elderly man-commander who had the greatest influence among the group members from a young age thanks to his reputation. The group commander came from his cultures as the Apache leader. The occupation was not hereditary and was generally different in all family members. The commander was a strong influence in the group, not a single member of the group was forced to follow the commander. The well-regarded Western Apache commander had to be hard-working, generous, objective, tolerant, honest, and eloquent.
Many local grassroots groups merged into squads. These organizational groups were strongest among the central and western Chiricahuas, while among the Lipans and Mescaleros, they were weak. The Navajo party did not form squads, most likely due to the fact that they were not favorable in their pursuit of the bison. However, the Navajo organized groups, which were larger than the Apache extended family, but smaller than the local group or platoon.
The highest levels of the Western Apache social hierarchy flocked to the orders, which Grenville Goodwin named. He named the five Western Apache groups: the Northern Fools, the Southern Fools, Cibekuje, San Carlos, and White Mountain. The jicarilla squadrons consisted of parts probably influenced by Pueblo culture. The Western Apaches and Navajo Indians had a matriarchal clan system.
The concept of an Apache nation did not exist among them and they did not consider themselves part of the same unit despite speaking similar languages. The seven Apache tribes were not politically united (despite widespread opinion) and sometimes They were even enemies of each other, such as the Lipans, who were enemies of the Mescaleros.
Kinship system
The Apache tribes were characterized by having two different systems: the family or clan and the type among the Chiricahuas and Jicarillas. The types of systems were certainly similar among the Chiricahuas, Mezcaleros, and the Western Apaches, the latter system being a little different from the first two in that it was more like the Navajo system.
The Jicarilla system resembled that of the Dakota and Iroquois kinship systems, being similar to that of the Navajo, Lipan, and Plains Apache. The Navajo system was somewhat different and had similarities to the Chiricahua system. The Lipan system and that of the Plains Apaches were very similar systems.
Chiricahua system
The Chiricahuas had four different words to name grandparents: -chu – maternal grandmother, -tsúyé – maternal grandfather, -ch' iné – grandmother and on the father's side -nalé – paternal grandfather. Also, older brothers and sisters are called by the same word; therefore, the maternal grandmother, sisters, and brothers of the maternal grandmother are called -chu. Furthermore, the entire level of grandparents is reciprocal, that is, grandparents also name their grandchildren by the mother's or father's line. For example, the speaker's maternal grandmother will be called -chu and identically the receiver's will also be called -chu.
Chiricahuas do not own the main family cousins and sisters of brothers and sisters. In this way, the same word is used to designate brother and cousin. In addition, another term is used to describe the gender of the speaker: -k'is – are brothers of the same sex, sister or cousin, and -ląh – the opposite sex. This means that if the speaker is a man, then he will call his brother -k'is and his sister -ląh . If the speaker is a woman, then his brother will be called -ląh and his sister -k & # 39; is .
Two different words are known to designate parents, according to sex: -máá – mother and -taa – father. Also, these two words describe children based on gender: -yách'e '– daughter and -ghe ' - son.
Sisters and brothers of parents are identified together, regardless of gender: -ghúyé – a maternal aunt or uncle (mother's brother or sister), -deedéé '– aunt or an uncle on your parent's side (father's brother or sister). These terms are used mutually by grandparents and grandchildren. This means that -ghúyé also means nephew or niece.
Jicarilla system
Unlike the Chiricahua system, Jicarilla grandparents could only be named with two different words to differentiate gender: -chóó – grandmother and -tsóyéé – grandfather. There are no separate terms for maternal or paternal grandparents. These terms are also used to name children's grandparents based on gender. In this way, the word -choo calls for the grandmother and her sisters (both the mother's and the other half of the father); -tsóyéé they call her grandfather and her brothers. These terms are not mutually exclusive. There is only one word for the grandson, regardless of the sex of it -tsóyíí .
There are two words for each parent. These terms are also used to name the parents of siblings of the same sex: -'nííh – mother or aunt (mother's sister), -ka'éé – father or uncle (father's brother). In addition, the use of these terms to describe the uncle or aunt of the opposite sex: -da'ááá – maternal uncle (mother's brother) and -béjéé – paternal aunt (father's sister).
Both terms are used by brothers and sisters. They also use cousins of the opposite sex: -k'isé – brother of the same sex, sister or cousin, cousin; -láh – is the brother of the opposite sex, sister or cousin, cousin. There are also three terms that depend on the age of the speaker: -ndádéé – older sister, - na'ááá – older brother, -shdázha – the younger brother or sister. Different words are also used for the mother and her brothers, sisters, children of their parents: -zeedń – father, sister, brother, mother or son, -iłnaa' aash – sister of the male father or the son of the mother's brother (used only in relation to males).
It is known as the children of the parents, as well as the siblings of the same sex or the children of the children of the same sex or the cousins of cousins: -zháche'e – the daughter of the same sex in relation to the speaker's brother or sister, daughter, -ghe '– son of the same-sex brother or son of the sister. There are individual terms of the opposite sex with respect to the brother or sister of a child in question: -da'ááá – the sister of the opposite sex or daughter of the sister, -da '– the brother of the opposite sex or son of the sister.
Housing classes
All Apaches lived in three types of housing. The first was a wigwam used by living on the plains. The second type of housing was the vikiupas, a kind of hut, called vigvam. This house is a 2.5 m high wooden frame reinforced with yucca fibers and covered with bushes and grass. These huts were generally from the Apaches who lived in the mountains. If a family member who lived in the hut dies, he is cremated. The third type of dwelling was a Hogan; it was used during hot weather when they headed into northern Mexico, which is perfectly cool. Its construction is still common in the Navajo Nation.
The following is a description by anthropologist Morris (Morris Opler) of the Chiricahuas' house:
"The house in which the family lived was built by women. It is a simple round, with the bush called Namukos in the form of dome, with floors at the level of the ground. It was about two meters high in the center and was about two and a half meters in diameter. The frame is built with groin of oak or willow branches that stick on the ground or are inserted into wells perfectly and especially excavated. The branches are inserted about 30 cm away from each other and are joined at the top with the yucca stack. On the roofs they put local herbs (Andropogon gerardii and Xerophyllum tenax) in lumps tied with strings. The smoke hole goes in the middle of the house. The coats and clothes were hung on a cross that stood near the entrance. Rain protection at the top of the cabin was achieved by placing a piece of skin or set of bison or bear skins in the hole. Of course, if it wasn't necessary to shoot, even the hole was always expelling smoke from the central fire. The hot air was also eliminated by the upper orifice. The accumulation of smoke in the house required about three days. This establishment was warm and comfortable, even in the snow. Its interior was equipped with shrub beds and herbal leaves... Women were responsible not only for housing within the facility, but also for their construction, maintenance, repair, and everything related to housing. They collected grass from the grasslands and changed them when they vanished or wet... But before the Apaches had no permanent home, so they were not bothered by the cleaning, but they simply changed place and built a new one. "Morris Opler
Economic organization
Feeding and sustenance
The Apaches obtained their food in various ways:
- Wild animal hunting (bisontes, deer and others);
- Collection of wild plants;
- Cultivation of some domestic plants;
- Thunder of cattle, meat and goods;
The Western Apache diet consisted of meat (35-40 percent). And plant foods (60-65 percent). Because the various Apache tribes lived as far apart in different climatic conditions, this had an impact on their nutritional differences.
The Hunt
Hunting was a male affair, although there were exceptions depending on time and culture (for example, Lipan women could help by hunting rabbits).
Elaborate rituals such as fasting usually took place before the hunt, and curanderos (ang. Curandero) performed certain religious ceremonies before and after the hunt. In the Lipan culture, the deer were guarded by the spirit of the mountain, so this spirit was invoked in their rituals so that the hunt was successful. The game of hunting must comply with certain religious rules (many of which are described in religious accounts), designated for a sacrificed animal, how to pray and how to destroy bones. Among the southern Creoles the division and distribution of the body was widespread. For example, among the Mezcalero hunter, who was successful in hunting, he was expected to give half of his prey to his companions and those who lacked food in the camp. Concern for other individuals in the community shows great social commitment and generosity. It was possible to gain respect among the members of the tribe, precisely whoever had the greatest respect and charisma could become their leader.
The most common weapon during the European invasion was the bow and arrow. It was used in hunting in various tactics. In special cases they used animal heads as bait, and seductive whistles to get the animal closer. They also tried to tire the animal: the hunters located several points surrounding it and defended their position until the animal fell exhausted or died.
Some animals could not be eaten, as it was a breach of public morality. Different tribes had different taboos. Some of the most common examples: bears, peccaries, turkey, fish, frogs, snakes, bugs, owls, cougars, and coyotes. Two examples of different taboos: the black bear was part of the diet (like bison, deer or antelopes), but the jicarillas never ate bears, because they considered them evil animals. Some taboos were typical of the entire region. Such as going without fish, which was taboo throughout the Southwest, or that snakes were the physical embodiment of evil.
Western Apaches mostly hunted deer and pronghorn in late fall. In November, they ate dried meat and migrated to winter camps in Salto, Negro, Gilo, or even the Colorado River valleys.
Chiricahuas generally hunted deer and pronghorn. However, in the hunting game, rabbits (hares), opossums, squirrels, wild horses and mules, deer, peccaries, hamsters were killed.
For the Mezcaleros, deer was much more important, although they also hunted bighorn sheep, bison (those who lived closer to the plains), and according to the Americans, rabbits, deer, horses and mules, opossums, pronghorns, and hamsters.
The Jicarillas hunted bighorn sheep, bison, deer, and šakiaragi. Beavers, rabbits, squirrels, doves, grouse, mules, porcupines, rabbits, squirrels, turkeys, and hamsters were also hunted. Horses were only eaten after being introduced by Europeans. They did not eat peccaries, weasels, cats, and wild wolves, but they hunted them for certain parts of their bodies, such as fur or teeth. The skunk was only eaten in extreme cases of famine.
The Lipans defended themselves primarily for bison meat. Their hunt lasted for three weeks in the fall and then a few days into the spring. Another key game was the venison. They drank fresh deer blood because they thought it was healthier. Although the Lipans also hunted beaver, bighorn sheep, black bears, ducks, horses, cougars, doves, prairie dogs, pronghorn, quail, rabbits, squirrels, turkeys, turtles, and hamsters.
Buffalo and deer were more commonly hunted among the Plains Apaches. Other animals hunted included badgers, bears, beavers, coyotes, wolves, wild chickens, geese, horses, mules, opossums, otters, rabbits, and turtles.
Food gathering and production
Gathering plants and cooking were women's jobs. However, in some things, such as collecting heavy agave crowns, the men helped. Many wild plants have been used not only for food, but also for medical and religious services. Some plants were used exclusively for religious rituals and as medicines.
Western Apaches gathered agave, which is cooked and dried. At the end of June - beginning of July the market of the great plains was filled with fruits, vegetables and roots. Between July and August, pods were collected from trees of the genus Prosobis, Spanish bayonet (genus yucca), fruits and acorns from Emory oak. At the end of September, the plant is no longer collected, because at that time all attention was focused on winter crops. At the end of autumn they gathered juniper berries and pine nuts.
The Chiricahuas use the crown of the plant (base of the tuber) (they cook it in large underground ovens and dry it in the sun) and shoots. The agave was chosen from among other plants, berries, fruits and other edible parts - agaritos (Mahonia trifoliata) berries, juniper berries, yucca date (Yucca baccata ), fruits, peppers, currants, Gambela acorns and oak bark (used for tea), greens, hawthorn fruits, April leaves of evergreen oak acorns, acacia pods, wild potatoes and many other crops. Also honey from wild combs.
Agave crece was no less used among the mezcalera nation, whose crown was harvested before winter. They also fed on agarito berries, yucca date (Yucca baccata), fruit, cactus fruit, wild potatoes, and many other non-poisonous plants that grew in Mezcalero territory.
Agriculture
Domestic crops in the different Apache groups differ strongly. Most of the crops were grown by the Navajo Indians, to a lesser extent, the Lipans. The western Apaches and Jicarillas practiced very little agriculture. While the Apaches of the plains and the Chiricahuas did not use it.
Trade
The Apaches dedicated themselves to looting and looting, keeping the spoils of war, not exactly trading, although there was a certain barter in itself. The merchants were in small groups, for a certain economic purpose. During the robbery, additional food reserves were built up, they chased and searched for certain necessary items (especially women). The war was carried out in large groups until destruction.
Trade was also a source of food. Their hunting trophies were mostly skins, which they traded for weapons, utility tools, and other useful items or food.
Apache tribes
- WA: Western Apaches
- N: Navajos
- Ch: Chiricahuas
- M: Mezcaleros
- J: Jicarillas
- L: Lipanes
- Pl: Apaches of the Plains
Today they include the Jicarilla and Mescalero tribes of New Mexico, the Chiricahua of New Mexico and the Arizona border, the Western Apache of Arizona, the Lipan of Texas, and the Apache of the Southwestern Plains in Oklahoma. They probably lived here for centuries, other southern Apache groups that have now disappeared are unknown to anthropologists.
Western Apaches are now the only ones still residing in Arizona. Apache groups live on various reservations, individual tribes were founded together. Western Apaches living on the White Hill Fort Apache, San Carlos, Yavapai-Apache, Tonto-Apache, and Fort McDowell Mohave-Apache reservations. Some Western Apaches live on the Yavapai-Prescott reservation. The White Mountain Apache tribe lives in eastern central Arizona, 312 kilometers northeast of Phoenix. The Tonto-Apache reservation was founded in 1972 near Paisono in eastern Arizona. Situated on 344,000 m² in the northeast of the Fikinkso Tonto National Forest, home to about 100 people. The relatives own a casino. The Yavapai-Apache reservation, which is west of Flagstaff, Arizona.
The Chiricahuas are no longer considered a cultural unit as they have divided into two groups. Some moved to the Mescalero reservations along with the Lipans who were included in a larger Mescalero political group. Other Chiricahuas remained in Oklahoma and made a fort that eventually became a reservation (ang. Fort Sill Apache Tribe).
The mezcalera reservation is located in southeastern New Mexico, near historic Fort Stanton. The Jicarilla reservation is located in the Rio de Arriba and Sandoval County in northwestern New Mexico. Some Lipans are preserved in the Mescalera Reserve. Other Lipans live in Texas. The Plains Apaches live in Oklahoma, in the town of Anadarko.
Meanwhile, the Navajo live on a gigantic semi-autonomous reservation-nation in northeastern Arizona called the Navajo Nation that enjoys some autonomy.
The following division is based on linguistic differences.
- Eastern tribes:
- Jicarilla
- Lipán
- Kiowa-Apache
- Mo
- West and east tribes:
- Navajos
- San Carlos-Chiricahua-Mescalero. Some of these tribes are grouped under the name of Coyoteros.
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