Agriculture

Soybean cultivation in Argentina.

Agriculture (from the Latin agri 'field' and cultūra 'cultivation', 'rearing') is the set of activities economic and technical related to soil treatment and cultivation of land for food production. It comprises a whole set of human actions that transforms the natural environment.

The related actions are those that make up the so-called agricultural sector. All the economic activities that this sector covers are based on the exploitation of the resources that the land originates, favored by the action of the human being: vegetable foods such as cereals, fruits, vegetables, cultivated pastures and fodder; fibers used by the textile industry; energy crops etc.

Agriculture also includes a global demand for the industry and the world food service depends to a large extent on the climate and the techniques to be able to make the land fertile, it maintains its origin in private property and the exploitation of the land given to families to establish themselves. It is an activity of great strategic importance as a fundamental basis for the self-sufficient development and money of nations. The science that studies the practice of agriculture is agronomy.

History

Beginning of agriculture

Cereals in ancient Egypt.

Agriculture began once people planted herbs for their seeds (or grains) in the Near East, in Guangdong in China, and in Latin America; and maybe they planted root vegetables in Peru and Indonesia, too. The Fertile Crescent of Southwest Asia, Egypt, and India were the places where hydraulic planting and harvesting of plants that had been previously collected from the wild were first developed. The independent development of agriculture occurred in North and South China, in the Sahel of Africa, in New Guinea, and in various regions of the Americas. The eight crops called the Neolithic founders of agriculture, starch marks on stone implements found in New Guinea suggest that sweet potato has been cultivated there for at least 30,000 years; Water chestnuts and beans may have been cultivated near the Spirit Cave in Thailand from 11,000 to 7,500 BCE. c.

The earliest development of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent is usually dated to around 9500 BCE. C., after the last ice age and most likely as a consequence of it. Hunter-gatherer communities in the Middle East became sedentary and began to domesticate wild animals and plants that they already ate in order to provide themselves with a stable food source without having to travel in search of it. The subsequent Neolithic revolution brought about enormous changes in the way of life of human beings and finally led to the emergence of civilization" revolution in the same areas a few millennia later. Around the year 9000 a. C., some people abandoned the old way of life of hunting animals and gathering fruits to settle and cultivate. Experts call this great change the 'Neolithic Revolution'. Farro and barley were cultivated in the Near East around 8000 BC. c.; sheep and goats were domesticated in this place soon after.

In the year 7000 B.C. C., the nascent agriculture arrived in Egypt. At least since 7000 B.C. C., wheat and barley were grown on the Indian subcontinent, as evidenced by archaeological excavations at Mehrgarh in Balochistan, in what is now Pakistan.

In the year 6000 B.C. C., peasant agriculture was entrenched on the banks of the Nile. This due to the still little development of irrigation techniques. During this time, agriculture developed independently in the Far East, with rice, rather than wheat, as the main crop. Farmers in China and Indonesia managed to domesticate the taro or Chinese potato (Colocasia esculenta) and mung bean (Vigna radiata), soybean and adzuki (Vigna angularis). To complement these new sources of carbohydrates, a highly organized fishing net in the rivers, lakes, and ocean shorelines in these areas brought with it large volumes of essential proteins. Taken together, these new farming and fishing methods led to a human population boom that dwarfed all previous expansions and continues today.

The oxen-pulled plow was used as early as 5000 BC. C. The Chinese used hand plows even earlier; In 5000 B.C. C., the Sumerians had developed the main agricultural techniques, including intensive cultivation of the land on a large scale, monoculture, irrigation techniques and the use of specialized labor, particularly along the waterway now known as the Shatt al-Arab channel, from the Persian Gulf delta to the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

The domestication of wild species: aurochs and mouflons into cattle and sheep, respectively, gave way to the large-scale utilization of animals for food/fiber and as beasts of burden. The herdsman joined the farmer as an essential provider for sedentary and semi-nomadic societies. Maize, cassava, and arrowroot were first domesticated in the Americas, dating back to 5,200 BC.

How agriculture was born in the world

Peasant burning. Painting at Sennedyem's grave, ca. 1200 a. C. Egypt.

Beginnings of agriculture in different regions of the planet; only primary development areas are considered, not those that domesticated plants by influx of regions that had previously developed agriculture.

The beginning of agriculture can be found in the Neolithic period, when the economy of human societies evolved from gathering, hunting and fishing to agriculture and livestock. The first cultivated plants were wheat and barley. Its origins are lost in prehistory and its development took place in various cultures that practiced it independently, such as those that arose in the so-called Fertile Crescent (Middle East area from Mesopotamia to Ancient Egypt), the pre-Columbian cultures of Central America, the culture developed by the Chinese in East Asia, etc.

Starch marks on stone implements found in New Guinea suggest that sweet potatoes have been cultivated there for at least 30,000 years; There is a transition, usually gradual, from the hunting and gathering economy to agricultural products. The reasons for the development of agriculture could be due to climatic changes towards more temperate temperatures; They could also be due to the scarcity of hunting or gathering food, or the desertification of large regions. Despite its advantages, according to some anthropologists, agriculture meant a reduction in the variety in the diet, creating a change in the evolution of the human species towards individuals that were more vulnerable and dependent on an enclave than their predecessors.

Agriculture and the dedication of women to maternity }is when a woman has a baby and cares for it until her last breath allowed a higher population density than the hunting and gathering economy due to the availability of food for a greater number of individuals. With agriculture, societies become sedentary and property ceases to be a right only over movable objects to also move to immovable property, the division of labor expands and a more complex society emerges with specialized craft and commercial activities, agricultural settlements and Conflicts over the interpretation of property boundaries give rise to the first legal and governmental systems.

Agriculture in ancient Rome

In the early days of Rome, cereals, legumes and vegetables were mainly grown, but at the time of the republican and imperial expansion, agriculture included, in addition to wheat (bread was always the basis of food), the other two elements of the so-called triad or Mediterranean trilogy.

The farmer worked with his family, in a literary idealized model of a simple life (the basis of moral, family and public values, and participation in the res publica); but with the territorial expansion, the continuity of the war effort, which demanded a prolonged military service of the citizens, ruined small farms in favor of the slave-owning mode of production. This system included most of the agricultural production, both that of the modest plots of land distributed to veteran soldiers and the large latifundia in the hands of the senatorial aristocracy. In the slow transition from slavery to feudalism, beginning with the crisis of the 3rd century, slaves were replaced by serfs, and the Empire became rural, with rural villas becoming self-sufficient centers, to the detriment of the decadent cities.

Middle Ages

Agricultural work, 818 d.C., Salzburg.

Throughout the European Middle Ages, important technological innovations emerged that brought some positive elements to the work of peasants. The main innovations in medieval agriculture were due to the greater dynamism of the feudal mode of production, which meant a greater incentive for serfs to improve production than for slaves. The Partidas of Alfonso X of Castilla define peasants within the estate society as those who till the land and do those things for which men have to live and maintain themselves. This active peasantry was the fundamental force of labor in medieval society.

The introduction of the use of heavy plows (wheeled and mouldboard) allowed deeper cultivation of northern European soils (it was incorporated throughout the century XI in the regions north of the Alps, while the fragile soils of the Mediterranean area were still linked to the Roman plow). Hydraulic mills (later windmills introduced from Persia) significantly increased labor productivity, as did the gradual improvement of agricultural implements, such as new types of threshing machines, sickles, and scythes.

Traditional Trilla with a Trillo (Image of the Near East).

The change from the ox to the horse as a draft animal was the result of two technological advances —the use of the horseshoe and the development of the collar— that allowed the horse to pull larger loads more easily. This increased the efficiency of land transport, both for trade and for military campaigns, and coupled with the general improvement of the road network increased commercial opportunities for better-connected rural communities. In some areas with particularly fertile land, three-leaf crop rotation was introduced (three-year rotation, associating a spring cereal or a legume with a winter cereal), which reduced the need for 33% instead of 50%. fallow against the year and time system, increasing production and making it more diversified. The possibility of fertilizing was restricted to the availability of associated livestock, which, in the areas and periods in which it increased, had an important impact on peasant life, although not always positive for the farmers, whose interests were in contradiction with those of the farmers. of the ranchers, usually with a privileged status (the Council of La Mesta and similar ranching associations in the Christian kingdoms of the peninsula). The example of the monasteries, especially of the Benedictine Order spread throughout Western Europe (Cluny and Cistercian), spread agricultural practices, property management and the food industry. In areas of southern Europe (Muslim Sicily and Spain), the Arabs introduced agricultural improvements, especially in irrigation systems (norias in Murcia, ditches in Valencia), the use of slopes (terraces in the Alpujarras), floodplains (rice) and the intensive cultivation of orchards, with the generalization of Mediterranean fruit trees (orange, almond) and all kinds of vegetables, which will characterize the stereotype of the diet of the subjugated peasants of these areas, of Muslim origin, against the conquerors Christians (a villain fed up with garlic Don Quixote called Sancho).

These changes caused a growth, both in the variety and in the quantity of crops, which had important effects on the diet of the population. The countryside was the great protagonist in the Full European Middle Ages. The resources provided by agriculture and livestock were the basis of the economy and the land was the center of social relations, being the distribution of its surpluses what allowed the urban revolution that took place between the centuries XI and XIII, peak of the period called optimal medieval, benefited by a particularly mild climate. The average annual growth rate of the European population over the period 1000-1300 was 0.2%. Among the causes of the reduction in the mortality rate that allowed this slight but sustained growth, it has been suggested the improvement in diet as a result of the incorporation of the eighth amino acid, thanks to the consumption of lentils.

Agricultural expansion of arable land was done at the cost of reducing forest area and incorporating marginal land, and although it contributed to the growth of food production, it inevitably led to the negative consequences of the law of diminishing returns, which was among the distant causes or preconditions of the crisis of the 14th century. Despite the progress, medieval agriculture always showed signs of precariousness due to the impossibility of carrying out the productive investment of the surpluses (extracted in the form of feudal income by the nobility and the clergy) and its close dependence on natural conditions.

Modern Age

During the Old Regime, the countries of southern and eastern Europe prolonged the feudal economic system, especially in agriculture, being able to speak of an evident refeudalization since the crisis of the 17th century, in which the predominant position of the lords against to the peasants, who continued to be the vast majority of the population, but who had no possibility of beginning the accumulation of capital necessary for agrarian transformation. In contrast, in north-western Europe, especially in the Netherlands and England, social and political changes (bourgeois revolution) were accompanied in the countryside by an agricultural revolution prior to the Industrial Revolution of the XVIII, which intensified crops, increasing yields thanks to technical and productive improvements (crop rotation with four Waasland leaves; Jethro Tull implements) and the introduction of new crops.

The integration of the world economy after the age of discoveries allowed a planetary exchange of crops: products from the Old World, both from temperate zones such as wheat and grapevines, and from warm zones such as sugar cane, cotton and coffee were successfully introduced to America; while products from the New World such as corn, potatoes, tomatoes, peppers and tobacco diversified European agriculture and that of the rest of the continents. Already in industrial times, the exploitation of rubber, initially restricted to Amazonian forestry, also ended up spreading to other equatorial areas despite all the care taken to prevent it.

Contemporary Age

The ideology of economic liberalism advocated the liberation of the land market and the imposition of private property on them, with different manifestations depending on the country (enclosures in England since the XVIII; in Spain suppression of estates and lordships from the Cortes of Cádiz, confiscation of Mendizábal in 1836). The formation of unified national markets implied the unification of weights and measures, and the liberalization of prices in the face of the previous mercantilist protectionism, a task that enlightened despotism had begun from the supposed physiocrats in the middle of the century XVIII. The suppression of the wheat tax in Spain in 1765 was among the causes of the Esquilache riot, after which the slow processing of an Agrarian Law did not reach effective results (Informe de Jovellanos, 1795). In the Austrian Empire there was the abolition of serfdom (Joseph II, 1785), which in the Russian Empire did not arrive until 1861 (Alexander II's reform). In France, the Revolution of 1789 abolished feudal rights, providing a base of small landowners but with sufficient capitalization capacity, highly involved with their land, which has characterized the vitality and special social and political strength of the French countryside ever since. In England, the dominance of landlords and gentry in Parliament managed to maintain well into the 19th century the protectionism of the Corn Laws to prevent a drop in the price of wheat, to the detriment of the industrialists who sponsored the Manchester School. What had occurred is the drastic reduction of the active agricultural population in the face of increasing labor productivity. The lack of expectations of working in the fields for a growing population (demographic explosion) and the breakdown of traditional solidarity networks in rural parishes (Poor Laws, disappearance of the communal ones —in Spain with the confiscation of Madoz, 1855—) led to an unstoppable rural exodus that fed the suburbs of the industrial cities.

Cut bar originally pulled by a horse.

The use of chemical fertilizers (phosphates, nitrates, etc.), mechanization and scientific studies of soil science and agricultural engineering transformed agriculture at the end of the century XIX, in an activity similar to the industrial one in terms of its connection with science and technology. However, the dependence on the weather and the periodic outbreak of pests (Irish famine from 1845-1849, affecting the potato, phylloxera since 1863, affecting the vine) produced periodic agricultural crises.

The division of the world into developed and underdeveloped countries had one of its aspects in agriculture: the first were characterized by specialized and high-yield market agriculture (even in the so-called new countries where the population pressure on the surface is lower); while in the latter there was a division by zones between a subsistence agriculture of family farms with traditional technology and subjected to the pressure of population growth, and a monoculture plantation agriculture destined for the international market, which also puts pressure on the increasingly smaller natural spaces (deforestation).

The green revolution of the second half of the XX century meant a qualitative leap in the technification of agriculture throughout the world, relying on advanced technological improvements such as high-yielding seeds, which at the end of the XX century received a new impetus with the biotechnology (GMO). Simultaneously, the general evolution towards market agriculture produced an increasing dependence on pesticides and intensive fertilization, with serious environmental problems such as soil and aquifer contamination and a drastic reduction in biodiversity; to which an attempt has been made to respond with the approach of a so-called sustainable agriculture. The total global area dedicated to agricultural activities has been between 35% and 40% since the late 1950s.

News

Modern agricultural machinery.

20th century, especially with the advent of the tractor, the demanding tasks of sowing, harvesting and threshing can be performed easily. rapidly and on a scale previously unimaginable. According to the International Academy of Engineering of the United States. Farm mechanization is one of the 20 greatest engineering achievements of the 20th century. In the early 20th century in the United States, it took a farmer to feed 2-5 people, whereas today, thanks Due to current technology, agrochemicals and varieties, a farmer can feed 130 people. The cost of this productivity is large energy consumption, usually from fossil fuels.

The diffusion of radio and television (media), as well as information technology, are of great help, by facilitating weather reports, market studies, etc.

In addition to food for humans and their animals, it is produced with increasing utility such as flowers, ornamental plants, wood, fertilizers, furs, leather, chemical products (ethanol, plastics, sugar, starch), fibers (cotton, hemp, flax), fuel (biodiesel, ethanol itself, which is now being obtained from corn), biopharmaceuticals, and both legal and illegal drugs (tobacco, marijuana, opium, cocaine). There are also plants created by genetic engineering that produce specialized substances (such as, for example, transgenic corn, which, like the production of ethanol, is modifying the economy of the crops of this plant and the life of the communities that use it). still depend).

Genetic manipulation, better soil nutrient management and improved seed control have greatly increased yields per unit area, in turn these seeds have become more sensitive to pests and diseases, which entails a greater need for the latter by the farmer; Proof of this is the resurgence of old varieties, highly resistant to diseases and pests, due to their rusticity. At the same time, mechanization has reduced the demand for labor. Harvests are generally smaller in the poorest countries, lacking the necessary capital, technology and scientific knowledge.

Modern agriculture is heavily dependent on technology and the physical and biological sciences. Irrigation, drainage, conservation and sanitation, which are vital to successful agriculture, require the specialized knowledge of agronomists. Agricultural chemistry, on the other hand, deals with the application of fertilizers, insecticides and fungicides, soil repair, the analysis of agricultural products, etc.

Seed varieties have been bred to the point where they can germinate faster and adapt to shorter seasons in different climates. The current seeds can resist pesticides capable of exterminating all green plants. Hydroponics, a method of growing crops without soil, using chemical nutrient solutions, can help meet the growing need for production as the world's population increases.

Other modern techniques that have contributed to the development of agriculture are packaging, processing and marketing. Thus, food processing, such as quick freezing and dehydration have opened up new horizons for the marketing of products and increased potential markets.

Most of the poor around the world depend on agriculture. For this reason, food security and agriculture are being promoted by governments and development agencies as a strategy to favor people living in poverty and stimulate economic growth. These agricultural interventions include technology, skills, and the regulatory environment. Analysis of the impact of several of these interventions has been proposed, such as land titling, training and technology, farmer field schools, payment for environmental services, and decentralized forest management.

An analysis of five systematic reviews concluded, among various results, that land titling reforms have positive effects on agricultural productivity and the income of those who benefit. Likewise, technological innovations have a positive impact on family food security, while farmer field schools have proven to be effective in increasing agricultural production. Although there were other results as well, it remains to be understood why some programs are more effective than others, so more research is warranted that looks at the full range of relevant impacts and assesses broader societal outcomes.

Agricultural Sector

Agricultural sector is the sector of the economy that produces agricultural products (raw materials of plant origin).

It should not be confused with the agrarian sector, which also includes livestock and other economic activities in the countryside, nor with the primary sector, which includes other sectors that produce raw materials, such as mining and logging.

The expression is usually used to identify the sectoral interests of agricultural companies or, generically, of all the inhabitants of agricultural areas, since they are determining factors in the economic life of most rural regions. In the politics of certain countries, especially in the United States, they function as a lobby or pressure group.

Agricultural products.

Agricultural Product

Agricultural product is the generic name of each of the agricultural products, the human activity that obtains raw materials of plant origin through cultivation. Strictly agricultural products are not considered those coming from forest exploitation. Less usual is the distinction with the products coming from harvesting, which in some cases is still an estimable economic activity (for example, the harvesting of mushrooms –which are not properly vegetables, but fungi–).

Depending on the destination given to the product, a division can be made between food agricultural products and industrial agricultural products. Of the food, the most important (because it is the basis of human nutrition and livestock), cereals (wheat, rice, corn, tomato, etc.) stand out; potato and other tubers; legumes; oilseed plants (olive, sunflower, soybean, rapeseed); the vine and other plants capable of producing different alcoholic beverages; sugar plants; and horticultural products. Of the industrial ones, essential for many industrial processes, the raw materials for the textile industry stand out, such as cotton, textile linen, esparto grass, etc.; and others of great economic importance, such as rubber and tobacco. Dyeing plants, which were of great importance until the Industrial Revolution, have been replaced by chemical dyes. The production of biofuels from vegetable remains or cultivated expressly for it has been the subject of great development in recent years.

Agricultural production should not be confused with agricultural production, which includes, in addition to agricultural products, those of other agricultural activities, especially livestock. Another confluent concept is that of the totality of the products of the field or rural products (the rural). Strictly speaking, rural production also includes the products of the rural industry, especially those of the local or traditional food industry and those of rural crafts.

Nor should it be confused with the contribution of the primary sector to total production (GDP or GNP depending on how it is considered), which is usually divided into the three sectors of the economy, since the primary sector also includes fishing. In order for farmers to produce food, they make use of two important natural resources: the soil and the water. This work is often done in areas where the topography is mountainous with high slopes where scarcity management and erosion control practices are required. Soil and water are also vital resources for all human activity. For this reason, the farmer must know the recommended practices for the effective use and conservation of these essential resources.

Types of agriculture

I water in a cotton crop.

Dry farming in the province of Ávila, Spain

Types of agriculture can be divided according to many different classification criteria:

According to their dependence on water:

• De secano: it is agriculture produced without water input by the same farmer. Nurture the soil of rain or groundwater.
• Irrigated: it occurs with the supply of water by the farmer, through the supply of natural or artificial surface channels, or by the extraction of groundwater from the wells.

Depending on the magnitude of production and its relationship with the market:

• Subsistence farming: It consists in the production of the minimum amount of food necessary to meet the needs of the farmer and his family, without just surplus to market. The technical level is primitive.
• Industrial agriculture: Large quantities are produced, using expensive means of production, to obtain surpluses and to market them. Typical industrialized countries, developing countries and the internationalized sector of the poorest countries. The technical level is of technological order. It can also be defined as Market Agriculture.

Seed of vegetables in Venezuela.

Depending on obtaining the maximum yield or the minimum use of other means of production, which will determine a greater or lesser ecological footprint:

• Intensive agriculture: seeks a large production in little space. It brings greater wear to the site. Propia of industrialized countries.
• Extensive farming: it depends on a larger surface, that is, it causes less pressure on the place and its ecological relations, although its commercial benefits are usually less.

Depending on the method and objectives:

• Traditional farming: uses the typical systems of a place, which have shaped the culture of it, in more or less prolonged periods.
• Industrial agriculture: mainly based on intensive systems, is focused on producing large amounts of food in less time and space — but with greater ecological wear — aimed at moving large commercial benefits.
• Organic agriculture: biological or ecological (they are synonyms): they create various production systems that respect the ecological characteristics of the places and geobiological of the soils, seeking to respect the natural seasons and distributions of the plant species, promoting soil fertility.
• Natural agriculture: products produced without human intervention are collected and consumed.
• Contract farming: is an agreement between a farmer and a company, established before production begins. This agreement varies by region, and commits the company to provide resources and services to the farmer, such as transportation, certification, supply of inputs or credits. In order for farmers to renounce their autonomy in the production and marketing of their products, it is necessary to offer them important gains. A review summarizes the findings of 75 reports, covering 26 empirical examples of contract farming in 13 developing countries. The conclusion of this review is that contract farming can increase the income of farmers between 23 and 54%. It is also concluded that the poorest farmers are generally not part of these schemes. These results, however, should be carefully examined because of possible biases in the estimates, as there are no data from farmers who withdraw from the programme or fail in the early years, for example.

Negative impact on the environment

Loss of biodiversity and deforestation

Land consolidation, deforestation, and marsh drainage for agricultural exploitation reduce the area available for wildlife and fragment natural habitats. Pesticides and herbicides destroy large numbers of unwanted insects and plants, thus affecting larger species whose food sources are reduced. These affected life forms can be important recyclers of soil nutrients, pollinators of crops, and predators of harmful insects. That is, the loss of biodiversity begins with the phase of preparing the land for agricultural development and continues afterwards. This loss of biodiversity is a constant that is not reduced even in those countries that value and protect nature. Likewise, land degradation, salinization and excess water extraction caused by agriculture affect the basis of their own future.

Many of these problems are depleting and desertifying the soil, forcing the abandonment of some land to plow new ones which, in turn, are depleted, creating a vicious circle that gradually destroys the environment. A clear example is the progressive deforestation of the Amazon jungle.

Greenhouse gas emissions

Agriculture is also a major source of air pollution and greenhouse gases. Ammonia is one of the main causes of acid rain that damages trees, acidifies soils, lakes and rivers, harming biodiversity. Ammonia emissions from mineral fertilizers represent approximately 16% and the combustion of biomass and crop residues 18%. Likewise, the combustion of plant biomass causes the emission of other powerful air pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and smoke particles. Humans are responsible for approximately 90% of biomass combustion, primarily through the deliberate burning of forest vegetation, associated with deforestation, and pasture and crop residues to encourage the growth of new crops and destroy habitats for harmful insects. Rice cultivation is another major agricultural source of methane, accounting for about one-fifth of total emissions.

Erosion and land use

Agriculture, especially intensive or industrial agriculture, has a negative impact on the soil. Common problems include:

• Field erosion
• Depletion of soil minerals
• Salinization of soil in dry areas
• Competition between agrofuels and food

Agrochemicals

Pesticides, herbicides and other types of agrochemicals affect the ecosystem in various ways. Some of these problems include:

• Pollution by nitrogen and phosphoomagnesio in rivers, lakes and groundwater
• Pollution for soil pesticide residues, water and air
• Cause imbalances in biota by indiscriminate use of pesticides

Other problems

• Organic waste pollution

Agricultural machinery, equipment and tools

Agricultural machinery

Tractor Lamborghini.

The machines are elements that are used to direct the action carried out by the forces of work based on energy; On the other hand, in the agricultural field, the motor mechanisms used in these tasks lighten production and improve cultivation techniques. Among the agricultural machines most used in field work are mentioned:

• Tractor: it is a very useful agricultural machine, with wheels or chains designed to move easily on the ground and traction power that allows to perform large agricultural tasks, even on charging grounds. He's got two brake pedals and he's conditioning to pull through. There are two types of tractors: that of caterpillar, of great stability and strength, and that of wheels, capable of moving to roads; it has greater speed than that of caterpillar.
• Motocultor: it is a single-axis agricultural machine and is operated by handlebars; it usually has medium power but, instead, it can be very versatile with the many tools and implements that have been developed. It is the ideal machinery for small or small plots, very frequent in the countries of the South of Europe, and also of the Southeast Asia, as well as other parts of the world; the force of the engine is quite reduced (monocylindrical gasoline or diesel engines of about 200 cm3 on average) but is compensated by the low speed, which gives it great power. Although it can also be used on relatively large plots with a seat for the driver, its employment has been partially replaced by the larger tractors, essential in the work of plot integration, such as that carried out in France and in other countries, so its use has been increasingly limited for horticultural work, gardening and ornamentation on the mini-fundistic plots. Motorcycle implements can range from harvesters, sowers, sprayers, transport and even take-off for irrigation pumps and other purposes. It will remain essential on the plots in the lands quite uneven and fragmented by the relief.
• Harvester: or reaper is a powerful agricultural engine machine, cutter comb to dry the mature plants of cereals and a long rake that goes in front of the machine and rotates on a horizontal axis.

Farm Equipment

Arado de cultivador, Cuenca, Spain.

Agricultural equipment is a group of devices designed to open furrows in the earth, crumble, spray and fertilize the soil.

• Plow: is an agricultural equipment designed to open grooves on the ground; it is composed of a blade, grill, dumpling, heel, bed, rudder and handle, which serve to cut and level the ground, hold the plow pieces, fix the shot and serve as a handle. There are various types of plows, but the best known are:
  • plow of dumpling, formed by the grid, blades and the dumpling.
  • album plow: formed by concave discs to open deep grooves.
  • surface plow, to remove the top layer of the soil.
  • plow of subsoil, to remove the earth in depth.
• Rastra: is an agricultural equipment designed to remove the parts or portions of land that have been removed by the plow; they are composed of a frame that can be made of wood and metal, teeth and hook that binds it to the tractor.
• Sprinkler: is an agricultural equipment designed for fumigation; it is composed of a liquid tank, pressure pump, lid, mouth, tank and pressure valve, straps, hose, key and nozzle where the fumigation fluid comes from, whether insecticide, fungicide or herbicide. The manual sprayer is placed on the back of the sprayer and the sprayer is placed in the mouth and nose with a special mask to prevent the strong smells fired by the explosive substance from causing damage.
• Direct sowing planter: it is a equipment to place the seeds on the sowing bed, without prior labor.
• fertilizer: is an agricultural equipment designed to distribute fertilizers; it is composed of three main parts: the hopper or fertilizer tank, the fertilizer drop tube and the fertilizer distributor.
• Packer: is an agricultural equipment designed to pack or pack the straw of the cereals or other forage herbs in bullets (also called pacas or alpacas).

Farm Tools

Collection of agricultural, from left to right: hoz, palate, axes, horcas, sierra, rastrillo, pico y azadas. Picked in Cuenca, Spain.

Agricultural tools are instruments used to till the land, load sand, weed, remove soil, dig trenches, transport fertilizer or material, etc. There are many and varied agricultural tools, among which are mentioned:

• Azadas: they are tools with end in the form of a shovel; they are metal with lower edge of cutting edge; they serve to remove the earth.
• Barrels: are steel levers finished in flat and semi-plane sheet of the same metal, medium-length handle.
• Reels: are small charges that have a wheel and serve to load and download agricultural material, whether sand, land, fertilizers.
• Escardillas: they constitute variants of the hoes, of less width, used for escardar, that is, to clean the crops of cardos and other herbs and undesirable plants.
• Machetes: they are tools designed to cut; they have a long and sharp steel sheet, coupled with a wooden handle.
• Palas: they are metal foils, preferably steel, which are used to till the earth; they can be pointed or broad-shaped; they have lower edge with cutting edge and long wooden handle finished in a metal handle.
• Picos: they are composed instruments of a part of steel whose ends end in the form of rectangular shovel, on the one hand, and on the ground in vertical form; it has a rectangular blade with lower edge of edge and wooden or metal handle.
• Sketch: designed to cover or tear seeds; they have a horizontal part of metal and formed by thin or thick teeth according to use.
• Regaderas: they are metal containers with water tank, with a tube that ends in a round piece with many small holes; it serves to water plants.
• Transplanting: small metal blades are made of small spoon, sharp edges and wooden handle. They serve to extract seeds.

Differences between machinery, equipment and tools according to their use

The difference is that the machinery is in charge of removing the earth, while the equipment is in charge of helping the land, of getting rid of what should not be in the earth, and the tools help to transport and dig to sow a new crop.

Importance of machinery, equipment and tools in agricultural work

The importance that exists in:

• Agricultural machinery is used to drag, remove or remove land, clean and sow.
• Agricultural equipment is used to till the earth, remove the weed, spray the plants and to fertilize the soil.
• Agricultural tools are used to open ditches, load land, extract roots, tear herbs, pierce soil and spray plants with water.

Agrarian policies

Agrarian policy is very complex due to the need to balance ecology, the needs of the country and the social problems of those who live in the countryside.

Agriculture is a key issue in the fight for global justice. Despite the existence of an excess of food in the world markets, which causes prices to fall continuously, the problem of hunger in the world has not yet been solved. The rapid loss of arable land and the decrease in the amount of fresh water available, of which 70% is used for agriculture, are today one of the main causes of poverty. The fight against hunger suffered by 800 million human beings is not possible without a profound reform of the global agrarian policy.

Rich countries protect their farmers, either through production subsidies or through heavy tariffs on foreign products. This causes farmers from poor countries to be unable to compete on an equal footing, which is why there is currently great opposition from many sectors to this support.

Patents granted to companies that develop new types of seeds through genetic engineering have allowed seeds to be licensed to farmers in much the same way as software is licensed. This has shifted the balance of power in favor of the seed manufacturers, who can now dictate terms and conditions that were previously impossible. Because if the farmer does not agree to the company's demands, the company does not sell the seed. This has led many to accuse them of biopiracy, since many of these companies are dedicated to investigating the properties of plants, based on ancient knowledge. Giving the paradox that by patenting this knowledge, forcing the peoples from whom they have learned said knowledge, to pay them for its use.

Economic Studies

In order to boost exports of agricultural products, various government agencies publish economic studies by products and by country, through the Internet. Among others, there are the FAS of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Austrade and NZTE, which represent four of the most important countries in terms of exports of agricultural products. The Federation of International Trade Associations publishes studies by FAS and AAFC, as well as other non-governmental organizations, on its website globaltrade.net.

Philosophy of agriculture

The philosophy of agriculture is, broadly speaking, a discipline dedicated to the systematic critique of the philosophical frameworks (or ethical worldviews) that are the basis for decisions regarding agriculture.

Many of these views are also used in general land use decision making. In daily use, it can be defined as the search for wisdom associated with agriculture, as one of the founding components of civilization.

Symbols

Agriculture is represented in the same way as the goddess Ceres, crowned with ears of wheat, with a plow at her side and a bush that is beginning to blossom. She sometimes has a cornucopia full of all kinds of fruit and both hands on a shovel or hoe. Others paint her leaning on the Zodiac, to signify that the seasons fix the work of agriculture and dressed in a green garment, a symbol of hope.

In some medals, she is represented with a woman who has a lion and a bull lying at her feet, one emblem of the earth and the other of farming. On an engraved stone in the Vatican library, Agriculture is represented by Psyche, leaning on a shovel as work in which the soul finds a place for meditation. The genius of Agriculture is symbolized by a naked child, with a smiling face and crowned with poppies; in one hand he has a bunch of ears and in the other a bunch of grapes.

See also

• Wikcionario has definitions and other information about work.

Notes

Bibliography

• IROULEGUY, Victoria. From agrarische geschiedenis van West-Europe, Utrecht-Amberes 1964
• LUELMO, Julio. History of agriculture in Europe and America. Madrid: Editions Istmo, 1975.
• Marcel Mazoyer, Laurence Roudart: Histoire des agricultures du monde: Du néolithique à la crise contemporaine, Paris: Seuil, 2002, ISBN 2-02-053061-9, engl. A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis, New York: Monthly Review Press, 2006, ISBN 1-58367-121-8

External links

• Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category Agriculture.
• Portal:Rural. Content related to Rural.
• Panorama Agrario — Guides, news and work bag of the agrarian sector.
• MAGRAMA —Ministry of Agriculture, Food and the Environment (Spain)—. Archived on 19 February 2012 at Wayback Machine.
• AGP, agricultural news. Archived on 23 January 2021 in Wayback Machine.
• Information web on agriculture.
• EFEAgro, agricultural journalism.
• Agriculture, globalization and sustainable agricultural development.
• United Agriculture.
• Professional network on agrifood CHIL.org Archived on 14 August 2020 at Wayback Machine., supported by MAGRAMA —Ministry of Agriculture, Food and the Environment (Spain)
• Foundation for Socioeconomic Development and Environmental Restoration, FUNDESYRAM (El Salvador)
• Shot Informativo (Tec de Monterrey) El Campo