Optogenética
La optogenética es una técnica biológica que controla la actividad de neuronas u otros tipos de células mediante la luz. Esto se logra mediante la expresión de canales iónicos, bombas o enzimas fotosensibles específicamente en las células diana. A nivel celular, las enzimas y los factores de transcripción activados por la luz permiten un control preciso de las vías de señalización bioquímica. En neurociencia de sistemas, la capacidad de controlar la actividad de un conjunto de neuronas genéticamente definido se ha utilizado para comprender su contribución a la toma de decisiones, el aprendizaje, la memoria del miedo, el apareamiento, la adicción, la alimentación y la locomoción. En una primera aplicación médica de la tecnología optogenética, se recuperó parcialmente la visión en un paciente ciego con retinosis pigmentaria.También se han introducido técnicas optogenéticas para mapear la conectividad funcional del cerebro. Al alterar la actividad de neuronas genéticamente marcadas con luz y utilizar técnicas de imagen y electrofisiología para registrar la actividad de otras células, los investigadores pueden identificar las dependencias estadísticas entre las células y las regiones cerebrales.En un sentido más amplio, el campo de la optogenética también incluye métodos para registrar la actividad celular con indicadores codificados genéticamente.En 2010, la optogenética fue elegida como el «Método del Año» en todos los campos de la ciencia y la ingeniería por la revista de investigación interdisciplinaria «Nature Methods». Ese mismo año, un artículo sobre «Avances de la Década» en la revista de investigación académica Science destacó la optogenética.
Historia
Descripción


Proteínas activadas por luz: canales, bombas y enzimas
El sello distintivo de la optogenética, por lo tanto, es la introducción de canales, bombas y enzimas rápidas activadas por luz que permiten la manipulación temporal precisa de eventos eléctricos y bioquímicos, manteniendo al mismo tiempo la resolución celular mediante mecanismos de focalización específicos. Entre las opsinas microbianas que pueden utilizarse para investigar la función de los sistemas neuronales se encuentran las canalrodopsinas (ChR2, ChR1, VChR1 y SFO) para excitar neuronas, y las canalrodopsinas conductoras de aniones para la inhibición inducida por la luz. Recientemente, se han diseñado canales de potasio controlados indirectamente por luz para prevenir la generación de potenciales de acción en neuronas durante la iluminación con luz azul. Las bombas de iones impulsadas por luz también se utilizan para inhibir la actividad neuronal, por ejemplo, la halorrodopsina (NpHR), las halorrodopsinas mejoradas (eNpHR2.0 y eNpHR3.0, véase la Figura 2), la arquerodopsina (Arch), las opsinas fúngicas (Mac) y la bacteriorrodopsina mejorada (eBR). El control optogenético de eventos bioquímicos bien definidos en mamíferos en comportamiento también es ahora posible. Basándose en trabajos previos que fusionaban opsinas de vertebrados con receptores específicos acoplados a proteínas G, se creó una familia de herramientas optogenéticas quiméricas de un solo componente que permitieron a los investigadores manipular, en mamíferos en comportamiento, la concentración de mensajeros intracelulares definidos, como el AMPc y el IP3, en células diana. Poco después, se desarrollaron otros enfoques bioquímicos para la optogenética (fundamentalmente, con herramientas que mostraban baja actividad en la oscuridad), cuando se logró el control óptico sobre pequeñas GTPasas y adenilil ciclasas en células cultivadas mediante estrategias novedosas de diversos laboratorios. Se han descubierto adenilil ciclasas fotoactivadas en hongos y se han utilizado con éxito para controlar los niveles de AMPc en neuronas de mamíferos. Este repertorio emergente de actuadores optogenéticos permite ahora un control específico para cada tipo celular y con precisión temporal de múltiples ejes de la función celular en animales intactos.Hardware para aplicaciones ligeras
Otro factor necesario es el hardware (p. ej., fuentes de luz integradas de fibra óptica y de estado sólido) que permite controlar tipos específicos de células, incluso en las profundidades del cerebro, en animales en libertad. Esto último se consigue habitualmente mediante la tecnología de diodos acoplados a fibra óptica, introducida en 2007. Sin embargo, para evitar el uso de electrodos implantados, los investigadores han diseñado formas de inscribir una "ventana" de zirconio, modificada para ser transparente, e implantada en cráneos de ratones. Esto permite que las ondas ópticas penetren más profundamente y estimulen o inhiban neuronas individuales. Para estimular áreas cerebrales superficiales, como la corteza cerebral, se pueden montar fibras ópticas o LED directamente en el cráneo del animal. Se han utilizado fibras ópticas implantadas a mayor profundidad para suministrar luz a áreas cerebrales más profundas. Como complemento a los enfoques basados en fibra, se han desarrollado técnicas completamente inalámbricas que utilizan energía suministrada de forma inalámbrica a LED colocados en la cabeza para el estudio sin obstáculos de comportamientos complejos en organismos en libertad.Expresión de actuadores optogenéticos
La optogenética también incluye necesariamente el desarrollo de estrategias de focalización genética, como promotores celulares específicos u otros virus condicionalmente activos personalizados, para dirigir las sondas fotosensibles a poblaciones específicas de neuronas en el cerebro de animales vivos (p. ej., gusanos, moscas de la fruta, ratones, ratas y monos). En invertebrados como gusanos y moscas de la fruta, se suplementa cierta cantidad de all-trans-retinal (ATR) con los alimentos. Una ventaja clave de las opsinas microbianas, como se mencionó anteriormente, es que son completamente funcionales sin la adición de cofactores exógenos en vertebrados.Técnica

Problemas técnicos
Expresión selectiva
Kinética y sincronización
espectro de absorción de luz
Respuesta espacial
Aplicaciones
Identificación de neuronas y redes particulares
Amygdala
Bombilla olfativa
Nucleus accumbens
Corteza frontal
Corteza motora
La estimulación optogenética repetida in vivo en animales sanos logró inducir convulsiones. Este modelo se ha denominado optokindling.Corteza piriforme
In vivo, la estimulación optogenética repetida de las células piramidales de la corteza piriforme en animales sanos logró inducir convulsiones. Estudios in vitro han revelado una pérdida de la inhibición por retroalimentación en el circuito piriforme debido a una síntesis deficiente de GABA.
Corazón
Pandilla espiral
Cerebro
Sistema visual
Sistema sensorimotor
Control temporal preciso de las intervenciones
Hippocampus
Biología celular/vías de señalización celular
Proteínas fotosensibles utilizadas en varias vías de señalización celular
Control temporal de transducción de señal con luz
Fotoestimulación de ruido otogenético
Premios
Referencias
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- ^ Huidobro N, De la Torre-Valdovinos B, Mendez A, Treviño M, Arias-Carrion O, Chavez F, et al. (January 2018). "Optogenetic noise-photostimulation on the brain increases somatosensory spike firing responses". Neuroscience Letters. 664: 51–57. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2017.11.004. PMID 29128628. S2CID 3370851.
- ^ Mabil P, Huidobro N, Torres-Ramirez O, Flores-Hernandez J, Flores A, Gutierrez R, Manjarrez E (2020). "Noisy Light Augments the Na+ Current in Somatosensory Pyramidal Neurons of Optogenetic Transgenic Mice". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 14: 490. doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.00490. PMC 7263390. PMID 32528244.
- ^ Ninth Annual Wiley Prize in Biomedical Sciences Awarded to Dr. Peter Hegemann, Dr. Georg Nagel, and Dr. Ernst Bamberg (wiley.com)
- ^ "Karl Heinz Beckurts-Preis 2010". Karl Heinz Beckurts Foundation.
- ^ "HFSP Nakasone Award 2010". Human Frontier Science Program.
- ^ "International Prize for Translational Neuroscience of the Gertrud Reemtsma Foundation (K.J. Zülch Prize until 2019)". Max Planck Society.
- ^ "InBev-Baillet Latour International Health Prize" (PDF). Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS.
- ^ Louis-Jeantet Prize
- ^ "The Brain Prize 2013". Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
- ^ Reiner A, Isacoff EY (October 2013). "The Brain Prize 2013: the optogenetics revolution". Trends in Neurosciences. 36 (10): 557–560. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2013.08.005. PMID 24054067. S2CID 205404606.
- ^ "Else Kröner Fresenius Prize for Medical Research 2017". Else Kröner-Fresenius Foundation.
- ^ "2018 Kyoto Prize Laureate Karl Deisseroth". Kyoto Prize.
- ^ "Rumford Prize Awarded for the Invention and Refinement of Optogenetics". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. 30 January 2019. Retrieved 2019-03-12.
- ^ "2020 Heineken Prize Laureate Karl Deisseroth". Heineken Prizes.
- ^ "2020 Shaw Prize Laureates Miesenböck, Hegemann and Georg Nagel". Shaw Prize.
Más lectura
- Appasani K (2017). Optogenética: desde la función neuronal hasta la cartografía y la biología de enfermedades. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05301-4.
- Banerjee S, Mitra D (enero 2020). "Structural Basis of Design and Engineering for Advanced Plant Optogenetics". Tendencias en la ciencia vegetal. 25 1): 35 –65. Bibcode:2020TPS....25...35B. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2019.10.002. PMID 31699521. S2CID 207942668.
- Hu W, Li Q, Li B, Ma K, Zhang C, Fu X (enero 2020). "Optogenetics arroja nueva luz sobre ingeniería de tejidos y medicina regenerativa". Biomateriales. 227: 119546. doi:10.1016/j.biomateriales.2019.119546. PMID 31655444. S2CID 204918731.
- Jarrin S, Finn DP (octubre 2019). "Optogenética y su aplicación en investigación de dolor y ansiedad". Neurociencia y Biobehavioral Reviews. 105: 200 –211. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.007. PMID 31421140. S2CID 199577276.
- Johnson HE, Toettcher JE (agosto de 2018). "Iluminación de la biología del desarrollo con optogenética celular". Opinión actual en Biotecnología. 52: 42 –48. doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2018.02.003. PMC 6082700. PMID 29505976.
- Krueger D, Izquierdo E, Viswanathan R, Hartmann J, Pallares Cartes C, De Renzis S (octubre 2019). "Principios y aplicaciones de la optogenética en la biología del desarrollo". Desarrollo. 146 (20): dev175067. doi:10.1242/dev.175067. PMC 6914371. PMID 31641044.
- Losi A, Gardner KH, Möglich A (noviembre 2018). "Receptores de luz azul para la óptica". Reseñas químicas. 118 (21): 10659–10709. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00163. PMC 6500593. PMID 29984995.
- Vriz S, Ozawa T (septiembre 2018). Optogenética: actuadores ligeros y sensores emisores de luz en biología celular. Serie completa en fotoquímica y fotobiología. Vol. 18. Londres: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-1-78801-237-9.
- Wittmann T, Dema A, van Haren J (octubre 2020). "Lights, cytoskeleton, action: Optogenetic control of cell dynamics". Opinión actual en Biología Celular. 66. Elsevier Ltd.: 1 –10. doi:10.1016/j.ceb.2020.03.003. PMC 7577957. PMID 32371345.
Enlaces externos
- "Optogenética: arrojando luz sobre los secretos del cerebro". Scientifica.
- "Optogenética: Imágenes integradas de calcio y Optogenética". Inscopix6 de abril de 2020.