Ecumenismo

El ecumenismo, a veces oecumenismo, es el concepto y principio de que los cristianos que pertenecen a diferentes denominaciones cristianas deben trabajar juntos para desarrollar relaciones más estrechas entre sus iglesias y promover la unidad cristiana. El adjetivo ecuménico se aplica así a cualquier iniciativa interconfesional que fomente una mayor cooperación entre los cristianos y sus iglesias.

El hecho de que todos los cristianos pertenecientes a las principales denominaciones cristianas profesen la fe en Jesús y reciban el bautismo según la fórmula trinitaria se considera una base para el ecumenismo y su objetivo de unidad de los cristianos. Los ecumenistas citan Juan 17:20-23 como la base bíblica de la lucha por la unidad de la iglesia, en la que Jesús ora para que los cristianos "sean todos uno" para que "el mundo conozca" y crea en el mensaje del Evangelio.

En 1920, el Patriarca Ecuménico de la Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental, Germán V de Constantinopla, escribió una carta "dirigida 'a todas las Iglesias de Cristo, dondequiera que estén', instando a una cooperación más estrecha entre los cristianos separados y sugiriendo una 'Liga de Iglesias', paralelo a la recién fundada Liga de las Naciones".En 1937, los líderes cristianos de las principales iglesias cristianas resolvieron establecer el Consejo Mundial de Iglesias para trabajar por la causa de la unidad cristiana; hoy incluye iglesias de la mayoría de las principales tradiciones del cristianismo como miembros de pleno derecho, incluida la Iglesia Asiria del Este, la Iglesia Católica Antigua, las Iglesias Ortodoxas Orientales, la Federación Luterana Mundial, la Comunión Anglicana, la Alianza Mundial Bautista, las Iglesias Menonitas, el Consejo Metodista Mundial, la Iglesia Morava, las Iglesias Pentecostales y la Comunión Mundial de Iglesias Reformadas, así como casi todas las jurisdicciones de la Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental; la Iglesia Católica participa como observadora, enviando delegados a las reuniones oficiales.

Muchos consejos regionales afiliados al Consejo Mundial de Iglesias, como el Consejo de Iglesias del Medio Oriente, el Consejo Nacional de Iglesias en Australia y Christian Churches Together, trabajan por la causa de la unidad cristiana a nivel nacional, con denominaciones miembros que incluyen iglesias del Tradiciones ortodoxa oriental, luterana, católica romana, ortodoxa oriental, metodista, anglicana y reformada, entre otras.

Cada año, los cristianos observan la Semana de Oración por la Unidad de los Cristianos por el objetivo del ecumenismo, que es coordinada por el Consejo Mundial de Iglesias y adoptada por muchas de sus Iglesias miembros.

Los términos ecumenismo y ecuménico provienen del griego οἰκουμένη (oikoumene), que significa "todo el mundo habitado", y se usó históricamente con referencia específica al Imperio Romano. La visión ecuménica comprende tanto la búsqueda de la unidad visible de la Iglesia (Efesios 4,3) como de "toda la tierra habitada" (Mateo 24,14) como preocupación de todos los cristianos. En el cristianismo, la calificación ecuménicaoriginalmente y todavía se usa en términos como "concilio ecuménico" y "patriarca ecuménico", en el sentido de pertenecer a la totalidad de la Iglesia más grande (como la Iglesia Católica o la Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental) en lugar de estar restringido a uno de sus iglesias locales o diócesis constituyentes. Usado en este sentido, el término no tiene la connotación de volver a unir las denominaciones cristianas históricamente separadas, sino que supone la unidad de las congregaciones locales en una comunión mundial.

Propósito y meta

El término ecumenismo, tal como ahora se usa comúnmente, se refiere a la cooperación interconfesional entre diferentes iglesias cristianas. Estas iniciativas pueden variar desde iglesias locales de diferentes denominaciones que operan un comedor de beneficencia para los pobres, organizando un estudio bíblico ecuménico con participantes de diferentes tradiciones cristianas, invitando a todos los cristianos bautizados a participar en un Lovefeast cuando las iglesias los celebran, hasta la celebración de unas Estaciones ecuménicas de el servicio de la Cruz los viernes durante la temporada litúrgica cristiana de la Cuaresma y el servicio se lleva a cabo en una iglesia local diferente cada viernes (por ejemplo, católica, luterana, morava, anglicana, reformada y metodista).El objetivo final del ecumenismo es el reconocimiento de la validez sacramental, el compartir eucarístico y el logro de la plena comunión entre las diferentes denominaciones cristianas. Hay una variedad de expectativas diferentes de cómo se ve esa unidad cristiana, cómo se lleva a cabo, qué métodos ecuménicos deben emplearse y cuáles deben ser los objetivos a corto y largo plazo del movimiento ecuménico.

El bautismo según la fórmula trinitaria, que se realiza en la mayoría de las principales denominaciones cristianas, se considera la base del ecumenismo cristiano, el concepto de unidad entre los cristianos. Con respecto al ecumenismo, AW Tozer sostuvo que "La unidad en Cristo no es algo a lograr, es algo a reconocer". Los ecumenistas citan Juan 17: 20-23 como la base bíblica de la lucha por la unidad de la iglesia, en la que Jesús ora para que los cristianos "todos sean uno" para que "el mundo pueda conocer" y creer el mensaje del Evangelio. Como tal, el ecumenismo tiene una fuerte implicación para la misión de evangelización de la Iglesia, a la que se hace referencia en Juan 13:35: "En esto conocerán todos que sois mis discípulos, si os amáis los unos a los otros".Además, Jesús enfatizó que los lazos de los cristianos entre sí son mucho más grandes que los de los parientes consanguíneos.

Históricamente, el término "ecumenismo" se usó originalmente en el contexto de los concilios ecuménicos más grandes organizados con el apoyo del emperador romano. El objetivo de estos concilios era aclarar cuestiones de teología y doctrina cristiana, conduciendo al significado de unidad detrás del término "ecuménico". Los concilios ecuménicos reunieron a obispos de todo el Imperio Romano, con un total de siete concilios ecuménicos aceptados por las iglesias católica y ortodoxa oriental antes del Gran Cisma que dividió a las dos iglesias; los primeros cuatro concilios ecuménicos son reconocidos por las iglesias luteranas, la Comunión Anglicana y las iglesias reformadas, aunque se "consideran subordinados a las Escrituras". La Iglesia Asiria de Oriente reconoce los dos primeros concilios ecuménicos,mientras que las Iglesias ortodoxas orientales aceptan los primeros tres concilios ecuménicos.

Divisiones históricas en el cristianismo

Denominaciones cristianas hoy

El cristianismo no ha sido una fe monolítica desde el primer siglo, también conocida como la "Era Apostólica", y en la actualidad existen una serie de grupos cristianos muy variados, tanto dentro como fuera del cristianismo principal. A pesar de la división entre estos grupos, existen varios puntos en común a lo largo de sus tradiciones, comprensión de la teología, sistemas eclesiásticos gobernantes, doctrina e idioma. Como tales, muchos de estos grupos están visiblemente divididos en diferentes comuniones o denominaciones, agrupaciones de cristianos y sus iglesias en plena comunión entre sí, pero hasta cierto punto separados de otros cristianos.

El Consejo Mundial de Iglesias cuenta con 348 iglesias miembros, que representan a más de 500 millones de miembros de las principales tradiciones cristianas. Esto, con los 1.250 millones de cristianos de la Iglesia Católica, indica que 349 iglesias/denominaciones ya representan casi el 80% de la población cristiana del mundo.

Un problema con los números más grandes es que las denominaciones individuales se pueden contar varias veces. Por ejemplo, la Iglesia Católica es una sola iglesia, o comunión, que comprende 24 iglesias particulares autónomas distintas en plena comunión con el obispo de Roma (la más grande es la Iglesia latina, comúnmente llamada "católica romana"). Además, la presencia de la Iglesia Católica en cada país se cuenta como una denominación diferente, aunque de ninguna manera es una definición eclesiológicamente precisa. Esto puede resultar en que la Iglesia Católica se cuente como 242 denominaciones distintas, como en la Enciclopedia Cristiana Mundial.

Además, las congregaciones únicas no denominacionales o las megaiglesias sin afiliación denominacional se cuentan efectivamente cada una como su propia denominación, lo que da como resultado casos en los que "denominaciones" enteras pueden representar solo un puñado de personas. Otras denominaciones pueden ser restos muy pequeños de iglesias que alguna vez fueron más grandes. La Sociedad Unida de Creyentes en la Segunda Aparición de Cristo (Shakers) tiene solo dos miembros de pleno derecho, por ejemplo, pero es una denominación distinta.

La mayoría de las divisiones actuales son el resultado de cismas históricos, una ruptura en la plena comunión entre Iglesias, obispos o comunidades previamente unidas. Algunos cismas históricos resultaron ser temporales y eventualmente fueron sanados, otros se han endurecido en las denominaciones de hoy. Independientemente de cómo se cuenten las denominaciones individuales, generalmente se reconoce que pertenecen a las siguientes "familias" principales de iglesias:

• La Iglesia Católica;
• Iglesias evangélicas (incluidas las iglesias bautista y metodista) y pentecostales;
• protestantes principales (incluidas las iglesias luteranas, la iglesia morava, la comunión anglicana, las iglesias reformadas, entre otras) y las iglesias católicas antiguas;
• La Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental, las Iglesias Ortodoxas Orientales y la Iglesia Asiria de Oriente;
• Grupos cristianos independientes o marginales y sectas restauracionistas (la Iglesia de Jesucristo de los Santos de los Últimos Días, los testigos de Jehová, los cristadelfianos, etc.) (generalmente no considerados cristianos)

En los Estados Unidos, las iglesias raciales/étnicas históricas a veces se cuentan como una familia distinta de iglesias, aunque pueden encajar en cualquiera de las categorías anteriores.

Algunas de estas familias son en sí mismas una sola comunión, como la Iglesia Católica. Otras familias son un movimiento muy general sin autoridad de gobierno universal. El protestantismo, por ejemplo, incluye grupos tan diversos como adventistas, anabaptistas, bautistas, congregacionalistas, evangélicos, husitas, irvingios, luteranos, judíos mesiánicos, metodistas (incluido el movimiento de santidad), moravos, pentecostales, presbiterianos, reformados y valdenses. Muchos de ellos, como resultado del diálogo ecuménico, han establecido acuerdos de comunión total o parcial.

Iglesias apostólicas antiguas

El cisma duradero más antiguo en el cristianismo resultó de los desacuerdos del siglo V sobre la cristología, acentuados por diferencias filosóficas, lingüísticas, culturales y políticas.

La primera división significativa y duradera en el cristianismo histórico, el llamado cisma nestoriano, provino de la Iglesia de Oriente, compuesta en gran parte por iglesias siríacas orientales fuera del Imperio Romano, que abandonaron la plena comunión después del 431 en respuesta a malentendidos y conflictos de personalidad en el Concilio de Éfeso. Después de quince siglos de distanciamiento, la Iglesia Asiria de Oriente y la Iglesia Católica entablaron un diálogo ecuménico en la década de 1980, que resultó en un acuerdo sobre el mismo tema que las dividió, en la Declaración Cristológica Común de 1994, que identifica el origen de la cisma como en gran parte lingüístico, debido a problemas de traducción de terminología muy delicada y precisa del latín al arameo y viceversa.

Como parte de la controversia cristológica en curso en ese momento, después del Concilio de Calcedonia en 451, la siguiente gran división se produjo cuando las iglesias siríaca y copta se dividieron. Las iglesias disintieron de Calcedonia, convirtiéndose en las iglesias ortodoxas orientales de hoy. Estos también incluyen la Iglesia Apostólica Armenia, la Iglesia Ortodoxa Tewahedo de Etiopía y la Iglesia Siria Ortodoxa de Malankara en India. En los tiempos modernos, también ha habido movimientos para sanar esta división, con declaraciones cristológicas comunes hechas entre el Papa Juan Pablo II y el patriarca sirio Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, así como entre representantes tanto de la Ortodoxia Oriental como de la Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental.

Gran cisma

Aunque el mundo cristiano en su conjunto no experimentó grandes divisiones en la iglesia durante los siglos posteriores, las divisiones culturales orientales, predominantemente de habla griega y occidentales, predominantemente de habla latina, derivaron hacia el aislamiento, que culminó con la excomunión mutua del patriarca de Constantinopla Miguel I. Cerulario y el legado del entonces difunto Papa de Roma León IX en 1054, en lo que se conoce como el Gran Cisma. La separación canónica quedó sellada por el saqueo latino de Constantinopla (1204) durante la Cuarta Cruzada y por la mala acogida del Concilio de Florencia (1449) entre las Iglesias ortodoxas orientales.

Las razones políticas y teológicas del cisma son complejas. Aparte de la natural rivalidad entre el Imperio Romano de Oriente o Bizantino y el Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico franco-latino, una gran controversia fue la inclusión y aceptación en Occidente en general – y en la diócesis de Roma en particular – de la cláusula Filioque (" y el Hijo") en el Credo Niceno-Constantinopolitano, que Oriente vio como una violación del procedimiento eclesiástico en el mejor de los casos, un abuso de la autoridad papal ya que solo un Concilio Ecuménico podría enmendar lo que había sido definido por un concilio anterior, y una herejía en el mejor de los casos. peor, en la medida en que el Filioque implica que la divinidad esencial del Espíritu Santo se deriva no sólo del Padre como arché(singular cabeza y fuente), sino de la unión pericoretica entre el Padre y el Hijo. Que la hipóstasis o persona del Espíritu es o es producida por el amor preeterno mutuo entre Dios y Su Palabra es una explicación que los detractores cristianos orientales han alegado que tiene sus raíces en la apropiación medieval agustiniana del neoplatonismo plotiniano. (Ver Agustín de Hipona, De Trinitate.)

Tanto Occidente como Oriente coincidieron en que los otros patriarcas (los de Alejandría, Antioquía, Constantinopla y Jerusalén) le debían al patriarca de Roma una "primacía de honor", pero Occidente también sostuvo que esta primacía se extendía a la jurisdicción, una posición rechazada por los patriarcas orientales. Ocurrirían varios intentos de diálogo entre los dos grupos, pero fue solo en la década de 1960, bajo el Papa Pablo VI y el Patriarca Atenágoras, que se comenzaron a dar pasos significativos para reparar la relación entre los dos. En 1965, las excomuniones fueron "condenadas al olvido".

Sin embargo, la división resultante sigue siendo la de la Iglesia Católica y la Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental, que son cuerpos distribuidos globalmente y ya no están restringidos geográfica o culturalmente al "Oeste" o al "Este", respectivamente. (Existen tanto el catolicismo romano de rito oriental como la ortodoxia de rito occidental, por ejemplo). Existe un diálogo católico-ortodoxo continuo y fructífero.

Cismas y reformas occidentales

En el cristianismo occidental, hubo un puñado de movimientos geográficamente aislados que precedieron en el espíritu de la Reforma protestante. Los cátaros fueron un movimiento muy fuerte en el suroeste de Francia medieval, pero no sobrevivieron hasta los tiempos modernos, en gran parte como resultado de la Cruzada contra los albigenses. En el norte de Italia y el sureste de Francia, Peter Waldo fundó los valdenses en el siglo XII, que sigue siendo la iglesia no católica más grande de Italia y está en plena comunión con la Iglesia Metodista Italiana. En Bohemia, un movimiento a principios del siglo XV por Jan Hus llamado los husitas pidió la reforma de la enseñanza católica y todavía existe hasta el día de hoy, conocido como la Iglesia Morava. Aunque generalmente se cuentan entre las iglesias protestantes, grupos como los valdenses y los moravos preexisten al protestantismo propiamente dicho.

La Reforma protestante comenzó, simbólicamente, con la publicación de las "Noventa y cinco tesis" de Martín Lutero en Sajonia el 31 de octubre de 1517, escritas como un conjunto de agravios para reformar la Iglesia occidental. Los escritos de Lutero, combinados con el trabajo del teólogo suizo Huldrych Zwinglio y el teólogo y político francés Juan Calvino, buscaron reformar los problemas existentes en la doctrina y la práctica. Debido a las reacciones de los funcionarios eclesiásticos en la época de los reformadores, la Iglesia Católica se separó de ellos, instigando una ruptura en el cristianismo occidental. Este cisma creó las principales iglesias protestantes, incluidas especialmente las tradiciones luterana y reformada.

En Inglaterra, Enrique VIII de Inglaterra se declaró cabeza suprema de la Iglesia de Inglaterra con el Acta de Supremacía en 1531, reprimiendo tanto a los reformadores luteranos como a los leales al Papa. Thomas Cranmer, como arzobispo de Canterbury, introdujo la Reforma inglesa de una forma comprometida entre calvinistas y luteranos. Este cisma creó la Comunión Anglicana de hoy.

La Reforma Radical, también de mediados del siglo XVI, fue más allá de las reformas tanto anglicana como protestante, enfatizando la realidad espiritual e invisible de la Iglesia, aparte de cualquier manifestación eclesial visible. Un grupo importante de reformadores radicales fueron los anabautistas, personas como Menno Simons y Jakob Ammann, cuyos movimientos dieron como resultado las comunidades actuales de iglesias menonitas, amish, huteritas y de los hermanos, y hasta cierto punto, las comunidades Bruderhof.

Otros movimientos de reforma dentro del anglicanismo durante los siglos XVI al XVIII, con la influencia de la Reforma Radical, produjeron a los puritanos y separatistas, creando los bautistas, congregacionalistas, cuáqueros y, finalmente, el universalismo unitario de hoy.

The Methodist churches, which uphold Wesleyan-Arminian theology, grew out of a revival within Anglicanism, especially in England and the American colonies, under the leadership of the brothers John Wesley and Charles Wesley, both priests in the Church of England. This movement also produced the Holiness movement churches.

The Old Catholic Church split from the Catholic Church in the 1870s because of the promulgation of the dogma of Papal Infallibility as promoted by the First Vatican Council of 1869–1870. The term "Old Catholic" was first used in 1853 to describe the members of the See of Utrecht who were not under Papal authority. The Old Catholic movement grew in America but has not maintained ties with Utrecht, although talks are under way between some independent Old Catholic bishops and Utrecht.

The Evangelical movement takes form as the result of spiritual renewal efforts in the anglophone world in the 18th century. According to religion scholar, social activist, and politician Randall Balmer, Evangelicalism resulted "from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism. Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans". Historian Mark Noll adds to this list High Church Anglicanism, which contributed to Evangelicalism a legacy of "rigorous spirituality and innovative organization".

Pentecostalism is likewise born out of this context, and traditionally traces its origins to what it describes as an outpouring of the Holy Spirit on 1 January 1901 in Topeka, Kansas, at the Bethel Bible College. Subsequent charismatic revivals in Wales in 1904 and the Azusa Street Revival in 1906 are held as the beginnings of the Pentecostal movement. For a Spirit-believing Christian, it is not coincidence that these started just a few hours after Pope Leo XIII lead a prayer Veni Spiritus Sanctus during his urbi et orbi message, consecrating the 20th century to the Holy Spirit and through this prayer to the reunion of Christianity.

Three approaches to Christian unity

For some Protestants, spiritual unity, and often unity on the church's teachings on central issues, suffices. According to Lutheran theologian Edmund Schlink, most important in Christian ecumenism is that people focus primarily on Christ, not on separate church organizations. In Schlink's book Ökumenische Dogmatik (1983), he says Christians who see the risen Christ at work in the lives of various Christians or in diverse churches realize that the unity of Christ's church has never been lost, but has instead been distorted and obscured by different historical experiences and by spiritual myopia. Both are overcome in renewed faith in Christ. Included in that is responding to his admonition (John 17; Philippians 2) to be one in him and love one another as a witness to the world. The result of mutual recognition would be a discernible worldwide fellowship, organized in a historically new way.

For a significant part of the Christian world, one of the highest goals to be sought is the reconciliation of the various denominations by overcoming the historical divisions within Christianity. Even where there is broad agreement upon this goal, approaches to ecumenism vary. Generally, Protestants see fulfillment of the goal of ecumenism as consisting in general agreements on teachings about central issues of faith, with mutual pastoral accountability between the diverse churches regarding the teachings of salvation.

For Catholics and Orthodox on the other hand, the true unity of Christendom is treated in accordance with their more sacramental understanding of the Body of Christ; this ecclesiastical matter for them is closely linked to key theological issues (e.g. regarding the Eucharist and the historical Episcopate), and requires full dogmatic assent to the pastoral authority of the Church for full communion to be considered viable and valid. Thus, there are different answers even to the question of the church, which finally is the goal of the ecumenist movement itself. However, the desire of unity is expressed by many denominations, generally that all who profess faith in Christ in sincerity, would be more fully cooperative and supportive of one another.

For the Catholic and Orthodox churches, the process of approaching one another can be described as formally split in two successive stages: the "dialogue of love" and the "dialogue of truth". Examples of acts belonging to the former include the mutual revocation in 1965 of the anathemas of 1054, returning the relics of Sabbas the Sanctified (a common saint) to Mar Saba in the same year, and the first visit of a Pope to an Orthodox country in a millennium (Pope John Paul II accepting the invitation of the Patriarch of the Romanian Orthodox Church, Teoctist, in 1999), among others.

Christian ecumenism can be described in terms of the three largest divisions of Christianity: Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant. While this underemphasizes the complexity of these divisions, it is a useful model.

Catholicism

The Catholic Church has always considered it a duty of the highest rank to seek full unity with estranged communions of fellow Christians and, at the same time, to reject what it sees as a false union that would mean being unfaithful to or glossing over the teaching of sacred scripture and tradition.

Before the Second Vatican Council, the main stress was laid on this second aspect, as exemplified in canon 1258 of the 1917 Code of Canon Law:

1. It is illicit for the faithful to assist at or participate in any way in non-Catholic religious functions.
2. For a serious reason requiring, in case of doubt, the Bishop's approval, passive or merely material presence at non-Catholic funerals, weddings and similar occasions because of holding a civil office or as a courtesy can be tolerated, provided there is no danger of perversion or scandal.

The 1983 Code of Canon Law has no corresponding canon. It absolutely forbids Catholic priests to concelebrate the Eucharist with members of communities which are not in full communion (canon 908), but allows, in certain circumstances and under certain conditions, other sharing in the sacraments. The Directory for the Application of Principles and Norms on Ecumenism, 102 states: "Christians may be encouraged to share in spiritual activities and resources, i.e., to share that spiritual heritage they have in common in a manner and to a degree appropriate to their present divided state."

Pope John XXIII, who convoked the council that brought this change of emphasis about, said that the council's aim was to seek renewal of the church itself, which would serve, for those separated from the See of Rome, as a "gentle invitation to seek and find that unity for which Jesus Christ prayed so ardently to his heavenly Father".

Some elements of the Catholic perspective on ecumenism are illustrated in the following quotations from the council's decree on ecumenism, Unitatis Redintegratio of 21 November 1964, and Pope John Paul II's encyclical, Ut Unum Sint of 25 May 1995.

Every renewal of the Church is essentially grounded in an increase of fidelity to her own calling. Undoubtedly this is the basis of the movement toward unity … There can be no ecumenism worthy of the name without a change of heart. For it is from renewal of the inner life of our minds, from self-denial and an unstinted love that desires of unity take their rise and develop in a mature way. We should therefore pray to the Holy Spirit for the grace to be genuinely self-denying, humble. gentle in the service of others, and to have an attitude of brotherly generosity towards them. … The words of St. John hold good about sins against unity: "If we say we have not sinned, we make him a liar, and his word is not in us". So we humbly beg pardon of God and of our separated brethren, just as we forgive them that trespass against us.

Christians cannot underestimate the burden of long-standing misgivings inherited from the past, and of mutual misunderstandings and prejudices. Complacency, indifference and insufficient knowledge of one another often make this situation worse. Consequently, the commitment to ecumenism must be based upon the conversion of hearts and upon prayer, which will also lead to the necessary purification of past memories. With the grace of the Holy Spirit, the Lord's disciples, inspired by love, by the power of the truth and by a sincere desire for mutual forgiveness and reconciliation, are called to re-examine together their painful past and the hurt which that past regrettably continues to provoke even today.

In ecumenical dialogue, Catholic theologians standing fast by the teaching of the Church and investigating the divine mysteries with the separated brethren must proceed with love for the truth, with charity, and with humility. When comparing doctrines with one another, they should remember that in Catholic doctrine there exists a "hierarchy" of truths, since they vary in their relation to the fundamental Christian faith. Thus the way will be opened by which through fraternal rivalry all will be stirred to a deeper understanding and a clearer presentation of the unfathomable riches of Christ.

The unity willed by God can be attained only by the adherence of all to the content of revealed faith in its entirety. In matters of faith, compromise is in contradiction with God who is Truth. In the Body of Christ, "the way, and the truth, and the life" (Jn 14:6), who could consider legitimate a reconciliation brought about at the expense of the truth?...Even so, doctrine needs to be presented in a way that makes it understandable to those for whom God himself intends it.

When the obstacles to perfect ecclesiastical communion have been gradually overcome, all Christians will at last, in a common celebration of the Eucharist, be gathered into the one and only Church in that unity which Christ bestowed on his Church from the beginning. We believe that this unity subsists in the Catholic Church as something she can never lose, and we hope that it will continue to increase until the end of time.

While some Eastern Orthodox churches commonly rebaptize converts from the Catholic Church, thereby refusing to recognize the baptism that the converts have previously received, the Catholic Church has always accepted the validity of all the sacraments administered by the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches.

The Catholic Church likewise has very seldom applied the terms "heterodox" or "heretic" to the Eastern Orthodox churches or its members, although there are clear differences in doctrine, notably about the authority of the Pope, Purgatory, and the filioque clause. More often, the term "separated" or "schismatic" has been applied to the state of the Eastern Orthodox churches.

Orthodoxy

The Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox churches are two distinct bodies of local churches. The churches within each body share full communion, although there is not official communion between the two bodies. Both consider themselves to be the original church, from which the West was divided in the 5th and 11th centuries, respectively (after the 3rd and 7th Ecumenical councils).

Many theologians of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxies engage in theological dialogue with each other and with some of the Western churches, though short of full communion. The Eastern Orthodox have participated in the ecumenical movement, with students active in the World Student Christian Federation since the late 19th century. Most Eastern Orthodox and all Oriental Orthodox churches are members of the World Council of Churches. Kallistos of Diokleia, a bishop of the Eastern Orthodox Church has stated that ecumenism "is important for Orthodoxy: it has helped to force the various Orthodox Churches out of their comparative isolation, making them meet one another and enter into a living contact with non-Orthodox Christians."

Historically, the relationship between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion has been congenial, with the Patriarch of Constantinople in 1922 recognising Anglican orders as valid. He wrote: "That the orthodox theologians who have scientifically examined the question have almost unanimously come to the same conclusions and have declared themselves as accepting the validity of Anglican Orders." Moreover, some Eastern Orthodox bishops have assisted in the ordination of Anglican bishops; for example, in 1870, the Most Reverend Alexander Lycurgus, the Greek Orthodox Archbishop of Syra and Tinos, was one of the bishops who consecrated Henry MacKenzie as the Suffragan Bishop of Nottingham. From 1910–1911, the era before World War I, Raphael of Brooklyn, an Eastern Orthodox bishop, "sanctioned an interchange of ministrations with the Episcopalians in places where members of one or the other communion are without clergy of their own". Bishop Raphael stated that in places "where there is no resident Orthodox Priest", an Anglican (Episcopalian) priest could administer Marriage, Holy Baptism, and the Blessed Sacrament to an Orthodox layperson. In 1912, however, Bishop Raphael ended the intercommunion after becoming uncomfortable with the fact that the Anglican Communion contained different churchmanships within Her, e.g. High Church, Evangelical, etc. However, after World War I, the Fellowship of Saint Alban and Saint Sergius was organized in 1927, which much like the Anglican and Eastern Churches Association worked on ecumenism between the two Churches; both of these organisations continue their task today.

In accordance with the Soviet anti-religious legislation under the state atheism of the Soviet Union, several Russian Orthodox churches and seminaries were closed. With ecumenical aid from Methodists in the United States two Russian Orthodox seminaries were reopened, and hierarchs of the Orthodox Church thankfully made the following statement: "The services rendered by the American Methodists and other Christian friends will go down in history of the Orthodox Church as one of its brightest pages in that dark and trying time of the church. Our Church will never forget the Samaritan service which your whole Church unselfishly rendered us. May this be the beginning of closer friendship for our churches and nations."

Protestantism

Protestants are involved in a variety of ecumenical groups, working in some cases toward organic denominational unity and in other cases for cooperative purposes alone. Because of the wide spectrum of Protestant denominations and perspectives, full cooperation has been difficult at times. Edmund Schlink's Ökumenische Dogmatik (1983, 1997) proposes a way through these problems to mutual recognition and renewed church unity.

Lutheranism

The Lutheran World Federation has several ongoing dialogues with respect to ecumenism:

• Lutheran-Anglican
• Lutheran-Mennonite-Roman Catholic
• Lutheran-Orthodox
• Lutheran-Reformed
• Lutheran-Roman Catholic

In 1999, the representatives of Lutheran World Federation and Catholic Church signed the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, resolving the conflict over the nature of Justification which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation. On July 18, 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration. The World Communion of Reformed Churches (representing the "80 million members of Congregational, Presbyterian, Reformed, United, Uniting, and Waldensian churches"), adopted the Declaration in 2017.

On Reformation Day in 2016, Pope Francis of the Catholic Church travelled to Sweden (where the Lutheran Church is the national Church) to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the Reformation at Lund Cathedral, which serves as the cathedra for the Bishop of Lund of the Church of Sweden, a Lutheran Church. An official press release from the Holy See stated:

The Lutheran World Federation (LWF) and Roman Catholic Church joint event will highlight the 50 years of continuous ecumenical dialogue between Catholics and Lutherans and the joint gifts of this collaboration. The Catholic-Lutheran commemoration of 500 years of the Reformation is structured around the themes of thanksgiving, repentance and commitment to common witness. The aim is to express the gifts of the Reformation and ask forgiveness for division perpetuated by Christians from the two traditions.

An ecumenical service was presided over by Bishop Munib Younan, the president of the Lutheran World Federation, Martin Junge [de], the General Secretary of the LWF, as well as Pope Francis, the leader of the Catholic Church. Representatives from the Anglican Communion, Baptist World Alliance, Eastern Orthodox Church, and Salvation Army also participated in the predominantly Lutheran and Roman Catholic event. Pope Francis, in a joint statement with Bishop Munib A. Younan, stated that "With gratitude we acknowledge that the Reformation helped give a greater centrality to sacred Scripture in the Church's life".

Susan Wood, a Sister of Charity, who is a systematic theology professor and chair of the theology department at Marquette University and a former president of the Catholic Theological Society of America, stated that "Since Vatican II, we have acknowledged an imperfect communion between Lutheran and Catholics" and that "There is no substantial difference in Lutheran and Catholic belief in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist". Wood stated that in the near future intercommunion could happen in places "where people can't get out, like nursing homes and prisons."

The Porvoo Communion is a communion that established altar and pulpit fellowship between Churches of the Lutheran and Anglican tradition.

Anglicanism

The members of the Anglican Communion have generally embraced the Ecumenical Movement, actively participating in such organizations as the World Council of Churches and the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Most provinces holding membership in the Anglican Communion have special departments devoted to ecumenical relations; however, the influence of Liberal Christianity has in recent years caused tension within the communion, causing some to question the direction ecumenism has taken them.

Each member church of the Anglican Communion makes its own decisions with regard to intercommunion. The 1958 Lambeth Conference recommended "that where between two Churches not of the same denominational or confessional family, there is unrestricted communio in sacris, including mutual recognition and acceptance of ministries, the appropriate term to use is 'full communion', and that where varying degrees of relation other than 'full communion' are established by agreement between two such churches the appropriate term is 'intercommunion'."

Full communion has been established between Provinces of the Anglican Communion and these Churches:

• Old Catholic Churches of Europe
• Philippine Independent Church
• Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar
• Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
• Moravian Church in America, Northern and Southern Provinces

Full communion has been established between the Anglican Churches of Europe (England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Portugal and Gibraltar in Europe) and the Lutheran Churches of Northern Europe (Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Estonia, Lithuania, Great Britain and the Latvian Evangelical Lutheran Church Abroad) with the Porvoo Communion.

The Episcopal Church is currently engaged in dialogue with the following religious bodies:

• Churches Uniting in Christ (CUIC)
• Eastern Orthodox Church
• Catholic Church
• Presbyterian Church USA
• United Methodist Church
• Reformed Episcopal Church and the Anglican Province of America

Worldwide, an estimated forty million Anglicans belong to churches that do not participate in the Anglican Communion, a particular organization limited to one province per country. In these Anglican churches, there is strong opposition to the ecumenical movement and to membership in such bodies as the World and National Councils of Churches. Most of these churches are associated with the Continuing Anglican movement or the movement for Anglican realignment. While ecumenicalism in general is opposed, certain Anglican church bodies that are not members of the Anglican Communion—the Free Church of England and the Church of England in South Africa, for example—have fostered close and cooperative relations with other evangelical (if non-Anglican) churches, on an individual basis.

Modern ecumenical movement

One understanding of the ecumenical movement is that it came from the Catholic Church's attempts to reconcile with Christians who had become separated over theological issues. Others see the 1910 World Missionary Conference as the birthplace of the ecumenical movement. Others yet point to the 1920 encyclical of the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch Germanus V "To the Churches of Christ Everywhere" that suggested a "fellowship of churches" similar to the League of Nations.

Earlier, Nicolaus Ludwig, Count von Zinzendorf, (1700–1760) the renewer of the Moravian Church in the 18th century, was the first person to use the word "ecumenical" in this sense. His pioneering efforts to unite all Christians, regardless of denominational labels, into a "Church of God in the Spirit"—notably among German immigrants in Pennsylvania—were misunderstood by his contemporaries.

Nathan Söderblom, Archbishop of Uppsala, the head of the Lutheran Church of Sweden, is known as the architect of the ecumenical movement of the twentieth century. During the First World War, he called on all Christian leaders to work for peace and justice. His leadership of the Christian "Life and Work" movement in the 1920s has led him to be recognised as one of the principal founders of the ecumenical movement. His was instrumental in chairing the World Conference of Life and Work in Stockholm, Sweden in 1925. At the Stockholm Conference in 1925, the culminating event in Söderblom's ecumenical work, Protestant and Orthodox Christians from the major Christian denominations, such as the Lutheran and Anglican Churches, were all present and participating, with the exception of the Catholic Church, which was a much regretted absence. He was a close friend of the English ecumenist George Bell. In 1930 was one of the recipients of the Nobel Prize, Nobel Peace Prize laureate, for the:Cooperation between Christian Church Communities Brings Peace and the first clergyman to receive this prize.

The contemporary ecumenical movement gained speed through the 1910 Edinburgh Missionary Conference. However this conference would not have been possible without the pioneering ecumenical work of the Christian youth movements: the Young Men's Christian Association (founded 1844), the Young Women's Christian Association (founded 1855), the World Student Christian Federation (founded 1895), and the Federal Council of Churches (founded 1908), predecessor to today's National Council of Churches USA. Led by Methodist layman John R. Mott (former YMCA staff and in 1910 the General Secretary of WSCF), the World Mission conference marked the largest Protestant gathering to that time, with the express purposes of working across denominational lines for the sake of world missions. After the First World War further developments were the "Faith and Order" movement led by Charles Henry Brent, and the "Life and Work" movement led by Nathan Soderblom. In the 1930s, the tradition of an annual World Communion Sunday to celebrate ecumenical ties was established in the Presbyterian Church and was subsequently adopted by several other denominations.

After World War I, which had brought much devastation to many people, the church became a source of hope to those in need. In 1948, the first meeting of the World Council of Churches took place. Despite the fact that the meeting had been postponed due to World War II, the council took place in Amsterdam with the theme of "Man’s Disorder and God’s Design". The focus of the church and the council following the gathering was on the damage created by the Second World War. The council and the movement went forward to continue the efforts of unifying the church globally in the mission of helping all those in need, whether it be a physical, emotional, or spiritual need. The movement led to an understanding amongst the churches that, despite difference, they could join together to be an element of great change in the world. To be an agent of hope and peace amongst the chaos and destruction that humans seem to create. More importantly the council and the movement lead to not only ecumenism but to the forming of councils amongst the denominations that connected churches across continental lines. Today, the World Council of Churches sees its role as sharing "the legacy of the one ecumenical movement and the responsibility to keep it alive" and acting "as a trustee for the inner coherence of the movement". Some scholars, such as Antoaneta Sabău, think that ”the features that ecumenism may display today could testify against the idea of a diminished interest in ecumenical matters, and rather for the fact that essential concepts of ecumenism have already become integrative parts of contemporary theologies.”

Contemporary developments

Catholic–Orthodox dialogue

The mutual anathemas (excommunications) of 1054, marking the Great Schism between Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) branches of Christianity, a process spanning several centuries, were revoked in 1965 by Pope Paul VI and the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. The Catholic Church does not regard Orthodox Christians as excommunicated, since they personally have no responsibility for the separation of their churches. In fact, Catholic rules admit the Orthodox to communion and the other sacraments in situations where the individuals are in danger of death or no Orthodox churches exist to serve the needs of their faithful. However, Orthodox churches still generally regard Roman Catholics as excluded from the sacraments and some may even not regard Catholic sacraments such as baptism and ordination as valid.

In November 2006, Pope Benedict XVI traveled to Istanbul at the invitation of Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople and participated in the feast day services of St. Andrew the First Apostle, the patron saint of the Church of Constantinople. The Ecumenical Patriarch and Pope Benedict had another historic meeting in Ravenna, Italy in 2007. The Declaration of Ravenna marked a significant rapprochement between the Roman Catholic and Orthodox positions. The declaration recognized the bishop of Rome as the Protos, or first among equals of the Patriarchs. This acceptance and the entire agreement was hotly contested by the Russian Orthodox Church. The signing of the declaration highlighted the pre-existing tensions between the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Moscow Patriarchate. Besides their theological concerns, the Russian Orthodox have continuing concerns over the question of the Eastern Catholic Churches that operate in what they regard as Orthodox territory. This question has been exacerbated by disputes over churches and other property that the Communist authorities once assigned to the Orthodox Church but whose restoration these Churches have obtained from the present authorities.

A major obstacle to improved relations between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches has been the insertion of the Latin term filioque into the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed in the 8th and 11th centuries. This obstacle has now been effectively resolved. The Catholic Church now recognizes that the Creed, as confessed at the First Council of Constantinople, did not add "and the Son", when it spoke of the Holy Spirit as proceeding from the Father. When quoting the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, as in the 6 August 2000 document Dominus Iesus, it does not include filioque. It views as complementary the Eastern-tradition expression "who proceeds from the Father" (profession of which it sees as affirming that he comes from the Father through the Son) and the Western-tradition expression "who proceeds from the Father and the Son", with the Eastern tradition expressing firstly the Father's character as first origin of the Spirit, and the Western tradition giving expression firstly to the consubstantial communion between Father and Son; and it believes that, provided this legitimate complementarity does not become rigid, it does not affect the identity of faith in the reality of the same mystery confessed.

Continuing dialogues at both international and national level continues between the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches. A particularly close relationship has grown up between Pope Francis and Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew. Both church leaders have in particular emphasized their common concern for refugees and persecuted Christians in the Middle East. The 2016 Pan-Orthodox Council that was held in Crete aroused great expectations for advances in Church unity. However, not all Orthodox churches participated and, as a result, the Russian Patriarch refused to recognize the council as a truly ecumenical gathering. A major milestone in the growing rapprochement between the Catholic and Orthodox churches was the 12 February 2016 meeting held in Havana, Cuba between Patriarch Kirill and Pope Francis. The two church leaders issued a Joint Declaration of Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill at the conclusion of their discussions.

Episcopal–Russian Orthodox dialogue

The decision by the U.S. Episcopal Church to ordain Gene Robinson, an openly gay, non-celibate priest who advocates same-sex blessings, as bishop led the Russian Orthodox Church to suspend its cooperation with the Episcopal Church. Likewise, when the Church of Sweden decided to bless same-sex marriages, the Russian Patriarchate severed all relations with the Church, noting that "Approving the shameful practice of same-sex marriages is a serious blow to the entire system of European spiritual and moral values influenced by Christianity."

Inter-Christian

Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev commented that the inter-Christian community is "bursting at the seams". He sees the great dividing line—or "abyss"—not so much between old churches and church families as between "traditionalists" and "liberals", the latter now dominating Protestantism, and predicted that other Northern Protestant Churches will follow suit and this means that the "ecumenical ship" will sink, for with the liberalism that is materializing in European Protestant churches, there is no longer anything to talk about.

Organizations such as the World Council of Churches, the National Council of Churches USA, Churches Uniting in Christ, Pentecostal Charismatic Peace Fellowship and Christian Churches Together continue to encourage ecumenical cooperation among Protestants, Eastern Orthodox, and, at times, Roman Catholics. There are universities such as the University of Bonn in Germany that offer degree courses in "Ecumenical Studies" in which theologians of various denominations teach their respective traditions and, at the same time, seek for common ground between these traditions.

The Global Christian Forum (GCF) was founded in 1998 following the proposal of the then General Secretary of the WCC, Rev. Konrad Raiser, that a new, independent space should be created where participants could meet on an equal basis to foster mutual respect and to explore and address together common concerns through a postmodern approach.

Influenced by the ecumenical movement, the "scandal of separation" and local developments, a number of United and uniting churches have formed; there are also a range of mutual recognition strategies being practiced where formal union is not feasible. An increasing trend has been the sharing of church buildings by two or more denominations, either holding separate services or a single service with elements of all traditions.

Opposition to ecumenism

Catholics

Most Traditionalist Catholics (such as Society of Saint Pius X, Society of Saint Pius V, Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen, Slaves of the Immaculate Heart of Mary etc.) are almost universally opposed to ecumenism with other faith groups. Critics in the Catholic church are often critical of Vatican II documents that promote ecumenism, such as Nostra aetate and Unitatis redintegratio. Catholic opponents to ecumenism often cite preceding papal documents such as Mortalium Animos (1928) by Pope Pius XI, who considered the position that the Church of Christ can be divided into sections and that the Unity of the Church has not been achieved as a false opinion. Considering these notions, Pius XI continued "[T]he Apostolic See cannot on any terms take part in [non-Catholic] assemblies, nor is it anyway lawful for Catholics either to support or to work for such enterprises; for if they do so they will be giving countenance to a false Christianity, quite alien to the one Church of Christ. Shall We suffer, what would indeed be iniquitous, the truth, and a truth divinely revealed, to be made a subject for compromise? For here there is question of defending revealed truth." Many traditional-leaning Catholics often strictly interpret the teaching of Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus ("outside the Church there is no salvation"), or that salvation can only be found in the church.

In November 2015 Pope Francis stirred controversy among Catholics when he addressed a gathering of Lutherans in Rome regarding the issue of inter-communion. Addressing the issue of a whether a Lutheran woman married to a Catholic man and attended mass together could receive communion together, Francis said that while he could not give permission for her to receive communion, if she would pray about it and come forward he could not deny her communion. Cardinal Robert Sarah and Bishop Athanasius Schneider reacted to the pope's comments saying it would almost never be acceptable for a non-Catholic to receive communion. On the matter of inter-communion Sarah said "Inter-communion is not permitted between Catholics and non-Catholics. You must confess the Catholic Faith. A non-Catholic cannot receive Communion. That is very, very clear. It’s not a matter of following your conscience."

In early 2019 Barry C. Knestout, the 13th bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Richmond, gave permission to the Episcopal Diocese of Southern Virginia to ordain Susan B. Haynes as the new bishop at St. Bede Catholic Church in Williamsburg, Virginia. The Episcopal Diocese of Southern Virginia does not have a cathedral and usually rotates where it hosts ordinations and other events. However the announcement was met with opposition by many Catholics who objected to holding a non-Catholic worship service and women's bishop ordination in a Catholic church. Over 3,000 people signed an internet petition objecting to the event. On 17 January the Episcopal Diocese of Southern Virginia announced it would no longer hold Haynes' ordination at St. Bede.

Methodists

There are some members of the United Methodist Church who oppose ecumenical efforts which are "not grounded in the doctrines of the Church" due to concerns over theological compromise. For example, an article published in Catalyst Online: Contemporary Evangelical Perspectives for United Methodist Seminarians stated that false ecumenism might result in the "blurring of theological and confessional differences in the interests of unity".

The Evangelical Wesleyan Church, a Methodist connexion in the conservative holiness movement, teaches in its Book of Discipline that ecumenism with denominations that teach doctrines which contradict Wesleyan-Arminian theology should be avoided:

1. The church warns all its members that the doctrine of "eternal security" ("once in grace, always in grace," the absolute final perseverance of the saints,) is not in accord with the teachings of the Scriptures. The Word of God plainly teaches the possibility of apostasy and eternal damnation. The scriptural references, as alleged proofs favoring this doctrine, may be showing to rest upon an assumption in each case that the Word of God will not substance. Therefore, all our people should exercise extreme caution in regard to the "eternal security" movement, whose teachings have been such a detriment to true Scriptural holiness and productive of lives of "sinning religion" in many; especially should they guard against financial support to the same.2. We further warn against the modern "unknown tongues" and "commercialized healing" movements. We believe that the Holy Ghost distributes His gifts, "dividing to every man severally as He will," for the purpose of edification; and that it is perilous to teach that any one manifestation of the Spirit is necessary to, or an invariable accompaniment of, any work of divine grace. None of our people should support or affiliate with these movements, for their teachings also have done untold damage to the spread of genuine holiness throughout the world.

Lutherans

Most churches following the doctrine of Confessional Lutheranism are generally strongly opposed to ecumenical activities. Most notably the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) bars its clergy from worshiping with other faiths, contending "that church fellowship or merger between church bodies in doctrinal disagreement with one another is not in keeping with what the Bible teaches about church fellowship." In keeping with this position, a Connecticut LCMS pastor was asked to apologize by the president of the denomination, and did so, for participating in an interfaith prayer vigil for the 26 children and adults killed at a Newtown elementary school; and a LCMS pastor in New York was suspended for praying at an interfaith vigil in 2001, twelve days after the September 11 attacks. Another conservative Lutheran body, the American Association of Lutheran Churches, is strongly opposed to ecumenical (more accurately, interfaith) dialogue with non-Christian religions and with denominations it identifies as cults.

Reformed Christians

When the Manhattan Declaration was released, many prominent Evangelical figures – particularly of the Calvinist Reformed tradition – opposed it, including John F. MacArthur, D. James Kennedy, Alistair Begg, R. C. Sproul, and Arminian Protestant teacher and televangelist John Ankerberg.

Anglicans/Episcopalians

William David Walker, who was the first bishop of North Dakota (1883–1896), and Western New York (1897–1917), was strongly opposed to dialogue with other denominations. In his address to the 1914 Convention of the Diocese of Western New York, Walker said that "in my opinion while divided Christendom remains, separated sects are better apart—each peaceably working out its own salvation."

Eastern Orthodox Christians

Practically, "the whole of Eastern Orthodoxy holds membership in the World Council of Churches." Ecumenical Patriarch Germanus V of Constantinople's 1920 letter '"To all the Churches of Christ, wherever they may be', urging closer co-operation among separated Christians, and suggesting a 'League of Churches', parallel to the newly founded League of Nations" was an inspiration for the founding of the World Council of Churches. As such "Constantinople, along with several of the other Orthodox Churches, was represented at the Faith and Order Conferences at Lausanne in 1927 and at Edinburgh in 1937. The Ecumenical Patriarchate also participated in the first Assembly of the WCC at Amsterdam in 1948, and has been a consistent supporter of the work of the WCC ever since."

However, many Eastern Orthodox Christians are vehemently opposed to ecumenism with other Christian denominations. They view ecumenism, as well as interfaith dialogue, as being potentially pernicious to Eastern Orthodox Church Tradition; a "weakening" of Eastern Orthodoxy itself. In the Eastern Orthodox world, the monastic community of Mount Athos, arguably the most important center of Orthodox spirituality, has voiced its concerns regarding the ecumenist movement and opposition to the participation of the Eastern Orthodox Church. They regard modern ecumenism as compromising essential doctrinal stands in order to accommodate other Christians, and object to the emphasis on dialogue leading to intercommunion rather than conversion on the part of participants in ecumenical initiatives. Greek Old Calendarists also claim that the teachings of the Seven Ecumenical Councils forbid changing the church calendar through abandonment of the Julian calendar. The Inter-Eastern Orthodox Theological Conference entitled "Ecumenism: Origins, Expectations, Disenchantment", organized in September 2004 by the Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki has drawn negative conclusions on ecumenism. Russian Orthodox bishop Tikhon (Shevkunov) has been strongly critical against ecumenism, especially with the Catholic Church, saying "Catholics are not even a church and as a result not even Christian."

Ecumenical organizations

Councils of churchesAction of Churches Together in ScotlandCanadian Council of ChurchesCaribbean Conference of ChurchesChristian Churches Together in the USAChristian Conference of AsiaChurches Together in Britain and IrelandChurches Together in EnglandCommunion of Churches in IndonesiaConference of European ChurchesConference of Secretaries of World Christian CommunionsCouncil of Churches of MalaysiaFellowship of Christian Councils and Churches in the Great Lakes and Horn of AfricaFellowship of Christian Councils and Churches in West AfricaFellowship of Christian Councils and Churches of Central AfricaFellowship of Christian Councils in Southern AfricaFellowship of Middle East Evangelical ChurchesHong Kong Christian CouncilLatin American Council of ChurchesMiddle East Council of ChurchesMyanmar Council of ChurchesNational Christian Council in JapanNational Council of Churches in BangladeshNational Council of Churches in KoreaNational Council of Churches in the PhilippinesNational Council of Churches of NepalNational Council of the Churches of Christ in the USAPacific Conference of ChurchesWorld Council of ChurchesWorld Evangelical Alliance

Ecumenical institutes and officesAnglican and Eastern Churches AssociationCentro Pro Unione, RomeCanadian Centre for Ecumenism, Montreal (Canada)Churches Uniting in Christ, USAEcumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue, Sri LankaFellowship of Saint Alban and Saint SergiusGroupe des DombesInstitute for Ecumenical Research, StrasbourgInternational Ecumenical FellowshipIrish School of Ecumenics, DublinJoint Working Group between the Roman Catholic Church and the World Council of ChurchesNorth American Academy of EcumenistsNorth American Orthodox-Catholic Theological ConsultationPorvoo CommunionPontifical Council for Promoting Christian UnitySeattle University School of Theology and MinistryTantur Ecumenical Institute, JerusalemWashington Theological Consortium

Ecumenical monastic communities and ordersBenedictine Women of MadisonBose Monastic CommunityFocolare MovementIona CommunityL'ArcheNew Monasticism related CommunitiesOrder of Ecumenical FranciscansOrder of Saint LazarusOrder of Saint LukePriory of St. WigbertSociety of Ordained ScientistsTaizé CommunityInterdenominational ministriesAmerican Bible SocietyChurch World ServiceCru, formerly "Campus Crusade for Christ"Girls' BrigadeGreen Churches Network CanadaPentecostal Charismatic Peace FellowshipPeople of PraiseSabeel Ecumenical Liberation Theology CenterStudent Christian Movement (Britain)Week of Prayer for Christian UnityWorld Communion SundayWorld Student Christian FederationBoys' Brigade

Political parties

The state atheism of the former Eastern Bloc, which brought about a persecution of Christians, caused a rise in Christian nationalism in the West, as well as ecumenical cooperation among Christians across denominational lines. For example, the United States, in 1956, adopted "In God We Trust" as its official motto "to differentiate itself from the Soviet Union, its Cold War enemy that was widely seen as promoting atheism." During this time, Christian human rights non-governmental organisations, such as Voice of the Martyrs, were founded in order to provide support to Christians persecuted in the Communist Bloc, also engaging in activities such as Bible smuggling. In the 1990s, the period surrounding the collapse of the Soviet Union led "a surge in the activity of religious groups and interests among broad segments of the population". The revival of the Church occurred in these formerly Communist areas; Christian missionaries also entered the former Eastern Bloc in order to engage in evangelism there, winning people back to Christianity.

Christian democracy is a centrist political ideology inspired by Catholic social teaching and Neo-Calvinist theology. Christian democratic political parties came to prominence after World War II after Roman Catholics and Protestants worked together to help rebuild war-torn Europe. From its inception, Christian Democracy fosters an "ecumenical unity achieved on the religious level against the atheism of the government in the Communist countries".

Ecumenical symbols

Ecumenical symbol

The ecumenical symbol pre-dates the World Council of Churches (WCC), formed in 1948, but is incorporated into the official logo of the WCC and many other ecumenical organizations.

The church is portrayed as a boat afloat on the sea of the world with the mast in the form of a cross. These early Christian symbols of the church embody faith and unity and carry the message of the ecumenical movement.... The symbol of the boat has its origins in the gospel story of the calling of the disciples by Jesus and the stilling of the storm on Lake Galilee.

Christian flag

Although originating in the Wesleyan tradition, and most popular among mainline and evangelical Protestant churches, the "Christian Flag" stands for no creed or denomination, but for Christianity. With regard to the Christian symbolism of the flag:

The ground is white, representing peace, purity and innocence. In the upper corner is a blue square, the color of the unclouded sky, emblematic of heaven, the home of the Christian; also a symbol of faith and trust. in the center of the blue is the cross, the ensign and chosen symbol of Christianity: the cross is red, typical of Christ's blood.

An ecumenical Christian organization, the Federal Council of Churches (now succeeded by the National Council of Churches and Christian Churches Together), adopted the flag on 23 January 1942.